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范文一：英语委婉语的特点
英语委婉语的特点
[摘要]委婉语(Euphemism)源于禁忌语(taboo)，是人类语言中的一种普遍现象。作为人际交往的润滑剂，委婉语从一个侧面反映了社会的价值观和崇尚心理，是人们在语言使用中协调人际关系的重要手段。本文从社会语言学的角度，对委婉语的定义、特点作了扼要的分析和阐述。
[关键词]委婉语 禁忌 特点
一、引言
委婉语作为语言中的一种普遍现象，长期以来一直受到众多语言学家和学者的关注。他们从修辞学、心理学和语言学等角度对其进行研究并取得了丰硕成果。但是，语言的研究绝不能离开其赖以生存的社会和文化语境。本文拟在前人研究的基础上，试从社会语言学的角度对委婉语进行剖析。通过以上对委婉语定义的介绍，主要分析其特征。
二、委婉语的特点
1. 普遍性和多样性
委婉语广泛存在于世界各民族语言中，其使用范围极为广泛，从国际政治事务、教育、经济、文学作品、乃至人们的日常生活，委婉语可谓渗透到社会生活的方方面面。美国学者休•劳森（Hugh Rawson，1974）曾说：“委婉语如此深地植根于语言中，几乎没有人——包括那些自诩言谈最为直截了当的人——能有哪一天不使用委婉语的”。
受时间、空间和很多社会因素的影响，委婉语存在许多变异形式。在不同的领域中，有不同形式的委婉语。由于使用者的性别、年龄和社会地位不同，委婉语的使用也各不相同。对同一话题，会有许多种委婉语可供选择。例如，几乎在所有的社会中，人们都把死亡看得非常神秘，也非常忌讳说“死”。因此，无论在何种文化中，人们总是寻求一些不伤及感情或中性的词汇来表达它。在英汉两种语言中都有许多替代说法。
汉语中“死亡”的委婉语因阶级、地位、等级、身份、对象、方式等方面的不
范文二：英语委婉语的特点及其应用
英语委婉语的特点及其应用
内容提要:本文主要讨论了:1)委婉语的特点;2) 委婉语的几种表达方式;3) 夸张性委婉语和缩小性委婉语在社
会生活中的应用。
关键词:委婉语 特点 应用
一、委婉语的定义
在一定的文化中, 参与交际的人们都会不约而同地
回避谈论某些话题或避免使用某些词语, 人们不愿、或
不能、或不敢随便谈及那些话题或使用那些词语, 于是
就用一些模糊的或听起来顺耳的说法或词语来代替, 这
些词语或表达法就是委婉语(euphemism)。委婉语的应
用非常广泛, 美国学者休·劳森(Hugh Rawson)曾说:委
婉语如此深深地嵌入我们的语言, 以致我们中间没有谁
——即使是那些自诩言谈直截了当的人——能够在不
使用委婉语的情况下过完一天的。
euphemism 源于希腊语的前缀eu- (= good,
sounding well,好听的) 和词根pheme (= speech or
saying, 话语或说话) 。euphemism 字面意义就是“用好
听的话或令人愉快的方式表达”, 即to speak with good
words or in a pleasant manner。《The Random House
College Dictionary》(1979)对euphemism 定义为:the
substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression
for one thought to be offensive, harsh or blunt.《语言
与语言学辞典》认为委婉语是:用一种不明说, 能使人感
到愉快或含糊的说法, 代替具有令人不悦或不够尊敬的
表达法。
二、委婉语的特点
1. 时代性。同一个事物, 同一个意思, 在不同时代往
往有不同的委婉表达法。几百年前, 英国上流社会可能
是神经过于敏感, 也可能是假正经, 一般不直接提及“裤
子”一词, 以避免想入非非, 或想到某些行为。于是他们
在交际中就用了如下一些关于“裤子”的委婉语:
indescribables(不能够描写的东西);one-must-not-
mention-' ems(决不可以提及的东西);unspeakables
(别说出来的东西) 或sit-upon' s(供你垫着坐的东西) 。
如今看来, 这些表达荒唐可笑, 是不会有人再如此这般
使用了。“怀孕”一词在许多文化中都有避免直接提及的
委婉表达法。据有关学者统计, 英语中曾先后有如下一
些委婉表达法。(陈原,1980)
She has canceled all her social engagements.
(1856)(她取消了她所有的社会交际。)
She is in an interesting condition.(1890)(她处在
很有兴味的情况中。)
She is in a delicate condition. (1895) (她处在很微
妙的情况中。)
She is knitting little booties.(1910)(她正在编织
小囡的袜子。)
She is in a family way.(1920)(她快要当家了。)
She is expecting. (1935)(她快生[孩子]了。)
She is pregnant. (1956)(她怀孕了。)
说了100年, 最后才说到真实事物上。这可能由于现
代生活节奏加快, 或思想的开放, 人们不喜欢冗长罗唆
的表达吧。
上述例子说明, 委婉语或委婉表达法具有很强的时
代性。
域性。不同地域的历史文化不同, 其风俗、禁忌
也不同。这种差异体现在语言中就表现为语言的地域差
异。例如, 沿海和江河沿岸, 人们忌讳“沉”字, 其同音字
也在忌讳之列, 要委婉表达之。船家姓“陈”, 有人问其
姓, 答曰“耳东”。在天津, 过年时给炉子添煤, 要说“添
火”。因“煤”与“霉”同音。人们比赛前忌说与“输”同音或
谐音的字, 如“书”、“梳”等。男用避孕套, 英国人把它们
叫做“一种法国的东西”(French letter),法国人把它叫
做“一种英国的东西”(Capote anglise)。同是一个社会
习惯要回避的事物, 各地域的说法不同。
3. 语域性。在不同的语境中, 即使在同一语境中不
同年龄、身份、地位或受教育程度不同的人, 他们用的委
婉表达也不尽相同。例如, 上厕所, 女士可能说to
powder one' s noise,to freshen up;男士则可能说to go
to the toilet,to relieve oneself或because nature calls;
而小孩则可能说make number one,go to the pot。
4. 社会性。语言是一种社会现象。不同的社会有不
尽相同的表达方式, 即使同一社会内的不同阶级、阶层,
甚至同一阶级、阶层内部不同行业以及具有不同文化背
景的人们, 使用委婉语也是不尽相同的。例如“死”一词,
各个社会、各个文化中都有不同的表达法。据有关学者
统计, 汉语中有关“死”的委婉语达300多个, 根据笔者手
中资料不完全统计, 英语中就大约有230多个。如果考虑
到那些临时性的委婉说法, 其数量则远超过以上数据。
一些人说某人“死”了为“去见阎王”, “翘辫子”; 一些人
则说“去世”; 有些人会说“千古”, “仙逝”等; 信仰马克思
主义的人会说“去见马克思”; 信仰基督教的人会说“be
with God”, 中国信佛教的人会说“去极乐世界”。总之,
委婉用法是社会中人们交际时不可避免地要使用的一
种语言表达方式, 它具有普遍的社会性。
5. 民族性。委婉语中有一部分是各民族语言通用
的, 有一部分则带有较强的民族色彩。中国人在年龄方
面往往直言不讳, 有时为了表示尊敬还要特意加上“老”
字, 如“老王”、“老李”, “您老贵姓”等。如果把“老”字放
在姓的后面, 如“王老”、“李老”, 不但可以显示出被称呼
者的年龄大, 而且所含的敬意更深。但这种尊称在英美
人中却行不通, 因为在他们的意识中old (老) 乃是“不
中用了”的代名词。因此, 人们一般用senior citizen和
elderly people来称呼上了年纪的人, 这两个词语都含
有敬重、尊敬的意思。
6. 习语化和临时性。很多委婉语经人们长期使用,
成为固定表达, 已经习语化, 并且进入了英语词汇。如
“死“, 在英语、汉语中就有数百个之多。有些同一意思的
内容先后由不同的委婉语替代。如mad(发疯的), 先后
有crazy,insane,lunatic,mentally deranged等替代过。
而有些委婉语则是临时的。例如, 有一家人把
euphemism, 用作“厕所”的委婉语, 其原因是这家人曾
有一次误解了客人话中的标点符号。他们把客人的“I
need, to use a euphemism, to wash up”(委婉地说, 我
想洗洗手) 听成“I need to use a euphemism to wash
up ”。曾有一男中学生看见一女同学穿了一件时髦漂亮
的衣服, 走过去对她说道:“你好3.14”(=л, 即“派”) 。
7. 随意性。委婉语产生于生活, 大多来自普通人之
口, 因此随意和口语化是现代委婉语的特点。过去, 两个
人中断恋爱而分手, 人们常用“劳燕分飞”, “丝断情了”
等。现在这些年轻人则可能会说:“我俩吹了”, “我俩掰
了”, “我俩拜拜了”, 或“我们‘撤’了”, “她(他) 不‘带
电’”等。过去曾把农民叫做“7100”部队(7100即锄头, 扁
担, 两只桶), 现在又有人把在农村种田的调侃为“3861”
部队(即妇女[三八],儿童[六一])。有人在加拿大西部
一个农场访问时, 曾听到有人把bull(公牛) 说成he cow
或gentleman cow。现在有人常把解除某人的职务叫做
“开路”, “靠边站”, “下岗”, “下课”等。
委婉语的最大特点是使用一种令人愉快的、委婉有
礼的、听起来不刺耳的、对方容易接受的词语代替令人
不快的、粗鲁无礼的话语来表达作者(说者) 真实的认
识、态度和感情, 因而可以说是同一意思的另一种说法,
目的在于更好地说明问题、解决矛盾或进行交流。
三、委婉语的表达方式
人们通过语言进行交际交流, 自然不能不考虑运用
语言的效果。可是效果如何, 很重要的一个方面就是看
听话人有怎样的反应。同样一件事情, 可以有这样或那
样的说法, 可以用各种不同的方式去表达。但是由于事
物的性质不同、交际的场合不同、人际关系不同, 所选用
的表达方式就不同。委婉语通常有下列几种表达方式:
1. 词语替代。指用褒义词、文雅词、正式词、中性
词、模糊词等代替贬义词、粗词、俗词、直词。如:人们用
126西南民族学院学报·哲学社会科学版 第20卷 ter 来代替urinate, 用churchyard 、memorial
park 或resting place替代graveyard(墓地), 用hard of
hearing 代替deaf 等。这就是以褒换贬的委婉说法。
2. 同义转换。即利用同义词在感情色彩等方面的
差异形成委婉语。如用tight 代替stingy(小气的, 吝啬
的), 用thrift(节俭的) 代替economical(节约的) 。
3. 用大概念指代小概念。如用abdomen(腹部) 指
belly(肚皮); 用limb(肢) 代替leg(腿) 等;breast(胸脯)
代女性“乳房”等。
4. 使用模糊概念。如英美社会未婚同居、同性恋者
甚多, 人们常用含糊其辞的委婉语称其为friend,
lover, roommate, companion等。
5. 用缩略词或简写词。如用V.D 代替venereal
disease(性病), 用f-代替fuck,p-代替piss 等。
6. 用外来语。如女衬衣、内衣常用法语词chemise,
lingeries 等。
7. 用迂回的说法。转弯抹角地表达, 甚至用风马牛
不相及的词语表达原义。如把学生的lazy(懒惰) 叫need
ample supervision in order to work well,把cheat(作
弊) 形容为need help in learning to adhere to rules and
standards of fair play,把lie (撒谎) 则委婉为shows
difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and
factual materials。
8. 运用句型。在英语口语里, 有许多比较客气的说
法, 是以委婉的语气或句式出现的。常见的形式主要有:
a. 表达婉转的请求和建议用
Would you like to...? Could you please...?
Would you mind...? I would prefer to...
I should like you to...
b. 对自己所说的话没有充分的把握时用
I should think...; I would say...;
Perhaps...;
c. 对对方的意见不十分肯定时, 用I' m not
sure...; I doubt...;表示反对时常用I' m
sorry, I think...; I' m afraid...; Forgive me
if...; If you don' t mind me saying so...
d. 用虚拟语气表示责备、不满、遗憾、批评、劝阻等,
如:
You should have been here five minutes earlier
I should have mentioned it to him, but…
If I were you ,…; I would like to, but…
四、委婉语的类型及应用
按交际功能分, 委婉语可分为夸张性委婉语
(exaggerating euphemism)和缩小性委婉语(narrowing
euphemism) 。
1. 夸张性委婉语指将所用的委婉字眼拔高, 使原意
听上去雅致、温和些, 使比它们所代替的真实事物更体
面、更重要。
在美国, 工厂、企业、商业、商店都是私人或小集团
经营的, 彼此之间互相排斥, 竞争激烈, 都想竭力美化自
己的行业, 以求生存。industry 这个词最初只限于使用
机器制造成品的企业, 现今几乎一切可盈利的部门都可
使用这个词。如broadcasting industry指广播业,hotel
industry 指旅馆业,garage industry指垃圾清理业; 更妙
的是, 美容院被称为women' s beauty industry;又如,
madhouse(精神病院) 婉称为mental hospital或mental
health center;bargain sale为good-bye sale或public
sale 。
职业有贵贱之分, 为装饰门面, 提高某些职业的社
会地位, 往往使用委婉语在字面上美化这些职业。美国
社会里, 医生(physician)和工程师(engineer)都是较受
尊重的职业, 不少委婉词语仿照-cian 或engineer 构
成。如:殡仪事业经营人undertaker 被称为mortician,
理发员被称为beautician,sanitary engineer(卫生工程
师) 指清除垃圾的清洁工, 修理管子的工人plumber 被
称为pipe engineer。对于一些见不得人的勾当, 其委婉
语更是五花八门, 俯拾即是, 在阅读或听话时稍不注意,
便会弄得莫明其妙, 甚至弄错, 如,working girl,street
walker,business girl,call girl,这些称呼实际上都是
whore(妓女); 同时她们把自己干的勾当叫作business
甚至叫作social service。
在政治生活中委婉语的应用也很广泛。美国社会各
阶层人士, 特别是政客, 出于某种政治目的, 习惯用委婉
语来掩盖事实真相, 如把经济危机economic crisis称为
recession 或depression; 把工人罢工strike 叫作
industrial action或industrial dispute;事实上是attack
(进攻) 却被称为active defence(积极性防御); 一些明明
是非正义的战争, 却被宣称为police action或
involvement; 战争中失利撤退称为break off contact
127 增刊 邓 海 英语委婉语的特点及其应用 my(暂停和敌人接触); 一些人贫穷潦倒, 债台
高筑, 却被别出心裁地称为negative saver(负储蓄者),
等等。
2. 缩小性委婉语则起减弱、收缩的作用。即尽可能
地把人们忌讳或难以启齿的词语改头换面, 或不直接触
及它。这类委婉语的一大范畴是对病、死的婉称。例如,
对病人发疯常用not all there或soft in the head来代 替mad 。美国人对癌症谈虎色变, 于是不愿在口语中提 到cancer, 而用the big C或terminal illness代之。用 BO 代替body odor。在谈到死亡时, 人们往往不愿直截 了当地说, 而是闪烁其词, 拐弯抹角, 用其它不同的委婉 语代之。如用pass away, depart, fall asleep, go to
heaven, join the majority, join one' s ancestors,
breathe one' s last, go to the other world等。场景不同, 说法也不一样。如医院里病人死去, 医护人员会说The patient expires。对亲属去世, 常用的表达方法是pass away, fade, fall asleep, be laid to the rest等。军人战 死沙场, 用bite the dust, buy the farm等。如果死者是 坏人, 人们会说他cast into outer darkness。在汉语里也 是一样, 人们说到死, 往往运用婉言。但因为爱憎褒贬的 不同, 选用的说法也就大有讲究, 可以用:逝世、去世、病 故、作古、长眠、老了、谢世; 也可以用:与世长辞、停止呼 吸、心脏停止了跳动、永别了、以身殉职、光荣等; 对坏人 的死, 一般用:断气、送命、报销、丧命、见阎王、下地狱等。 人是有精神属性的, 审美、道德观念渗透到各个领
域, 包括人的身体本身。人们对自己身体的某些部位或 人体的某些功能怀有羞耻感, 常用含蓄委婉之词来表示 那些难登大雅之堂的禁忌语。如: posterior指臀部
buttocks,charms 指乳房breast,private parts指生殖器 官vagina or penis。用have sex或make love指性行为。 说体型时, 一般不用fat(肥胖的) 或skinny(瘦骨嶙峋
的), 而用plump, chubby(丰满的) 或slender, slim(苗
条的) 等代之。关于大、小便的委婉说法, 更是各种各样, 如去上厕所可以说wash one' s hands,pass water,go to stool,go to the bathroom/men' s room/women' s room, 等。某人因饮食不调、肠胃不适, 医生想知道他大便是否 正常时可以问:How are your bowel movements?医生 要他检查一下大便时说:We need a stool specimen。大 庭广众之中, 谈及女士怀孕, 一般说She is in the family way, 或She is in an interesting condition,或She is
expecting 等。女性生活中的一些私事, 也忌讳直截了当 地把它说出来, 例如Jane has her friend中的“friend ” 就是period(月经) 的委婉语。香港人则说“大姑妈来
了”, 大陆某些地区的人则说“见红了”, 或“来喜了”等。 教育界新出现的委婉语也不少。如a stupid student (愚蠢的学生) 被称为a slow learner or underachiever。 谈到学习成绩差的学生(below average student)时说: She/He is working at her/his own level(她/他在根据
自己的水平学习) 。说Can do better work with help(有 别人帮助可以学得更好些) 比直接说学生slow(迟钝)
或stupid(笨) 更好些。还有:depends on others to do his/her work = cheats in class(依靠别人做作业=课 堂上考试作弊) 。Take other people' s things without permission = steal(未经许可拿别人东西=偷别人东 西) 等。
由此可见, 委婉语的使用比较复杂。在不同情况下,
不同职业、不同阶层的人, 使用委婉语会有所不同; 在不 同的情景, 委婉语给人的感觉也是不同的:有尊重的、谨 慎的、幽默的、机智的、灵活的, 也有讽刺的、自嘲的、虚 伪的等。而且, 委婉语的应用非常广泛, 社会性, 民族性 较强。所以, 要学会正确而恰当地使用委婉语, 不仅要了 解其定义、特征、表达方式和应用范围, 还必须了解不同 社会的民族文化、风俗习惯以及所处的时代等。 参考文献:
陈 原,1980, 《语言与社会生活》, 北京:生活·读书·新知 三联书店。
邓炎昌, 刘润清,1989, 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对 比》, 北京:外语教学与研究出版社。
李国南,1989, 英语中的委婉语, 《外国语》第3期,23-27页。李桂山,1997, 委婉语散论, 《外语教学与研究》第4期,25- 26页。
顾嘉祖, 陆 ,1990, 《语言与文化》, 上海:上海外语教育出 版社。
顾嘉祖,1997, 介绍《英语委婉语词典》, 《外语教学与研究》第1期,73页。
王福祥, 吴汉樱,1994, 《文化与语言》, 北京:外语教学与研 究出版社。
杨 平,1996, 从语用角度看跨文化交际中的禁忌问题, 《外语与外语教学》第4期。
张宇平, 姜艳平, 于年湖,1998, 《委婉语》, 北京:新华出版社。Neaman, J. S. & Silver, C. G. 1983.Kind Words:A
Thesaurus of Euphemisms.New York:Facts On File.
128西南民族学院学报·哲学社会科学版 第20卷
范文三：生理委婉语的特点和功能
生理委婉语的特点和功能
摘要:生理委婉语是委婉语的一个分支，它具有自己独特的功能。本文讨论了生理委婉语的特点和功能，希望能加深我们对不同文化的生理委婉语的了解并促进跨文化交流。
关键词:委婉语 生理委婉语 文化 交际
一、委婉语和生理委婉语
委婉语euphemism来源于希腊语“eu”，意思是“好的”，“好听的”和“pheme”意思是“话语”。委婉语是用好听的，婉转的，间接的词或短语来代替更准确，直接的说法。neaman (1990:1)用以下定义解释委婉语:用没有冒犯性的好听的说法代替具体的具有冒犯性的的说法，因此用好听的词来掩饰事实。
生理委婉语属于替代禁忌词的传统委婉语。它主要用来谈论人的生命，年龄，疾病，死亡，生殖器，性行为以及其他生理现象。
1.年龄委婉语
在不同国家，人们对变老的态度却不一样。西方人对年龄话题这个话题很敏感。胡文仲(2002)举过一个例子:一位新西兰籍女老师，在中国任教，回国后告诉她朋友，在中国她近百次被问到年龄，而在新西兰，几乎没人问她的年龄。被人问及年龄，使她很烦恼，很困惑。
西方人不喜欢谈论年龄，老龄对他们来说，意味着健康衰退，体力，美丽，青春丧失，甚至是死亡临近。当老年人被别人说“老”
时，他们多会觉得尊严减弱，感情受到伤害。所以英语中有许多关
于“年老”的委婉说法，例如feel one’s age, be advanced in age, senior citizens, elderly people, mature people, grey-headed
people, second childhood, seasoned people,
在中国情况却不一样，当我们称呼一个人“老”，多对他表示尊敬。
例如，我们称一个人“老李”，是因为老李年长，受人尊敬。被称
为“老李”的人也觉得自己受到尊敬。两种对年龄的不同态度说明
中西方文化的差异。
2.疾病的委婉语
人们都希望健康，厌恶疾病。这也就使得一些疾病，特别是重病
和羞于提及的病的委婉语应运而生。癌症在传统意义上意味着“死
亡”。英文中的“ca, the big c, a growth, terminally ill, long
illness”用来代替“cancer”。人们对癌症患者很同情，为了安慰
他们及亲属，人们也不直接提“癌症”。这在中西方国家都很普遍。
英语中，其他疾病也有委婉说法，例如:constipation——
irregularity, leprosy——hansen’s disease, mad/crazy——
mentally ill, mentally handicapped, mentally disturbed,
deranged, soft in the head.
3.残疾的委婉语
残疾是委婉语常用领域。残疾人通常身体和精神都很脆弱，对残
疾异常敏感。如果被为“残疾人”，他们精神会受到创伤。谈论“残
疾”时，使用委婉语很必要。英语中“physically handicapped,
differently-abled, physically inconvenient, unsound,”用来
指残疾人。其他的残疾及其委婉语有:deaf——hard of hearing,
auditory-impaired，blind——visually retarded,
sight-depraved, sightless，retarded——mental deficiency
4.死亡委婉语
死亡是不幸的，是人们不愿提及的词语，几乎每一个文化都有对
死亡的委婉语。人们用委婉语来向死者表示哀悼和尊敬。吕旭
(2005)列出一些英语中关于“死亡”的委婉语，如:fade, expire,
perish, depart, pass away/pass on/pass over, go to sleep, sleep the eternal sleep/sleep the never-ending sleep, be at rest, go to one’s final rest, be at peace, close one’s eyes,
hand in one’s account, return to dust/return to the earth/go from dust to dust/go to ground/go to grass, pay the debt of nature
汉语也有一些关于死亡的委婉语，如:去世，过世，辞世，安息，
断气，作古，谢世，与世长辞，离开了人间，心脏停止了跳动，夭
折，驾崩，弃社稷。
二、生理委婉语的结构和特点
1.生理委婉语的结构:
(1)使用否定前缀或者后缀形成反义词:limp—infirmness，blind
—sightless，bald—hair disadvantaged.
(2)使用省略:cancer—ca, big c.
(3)使用首字母缩写:mental deficiency—md bodyodor—bo(吕, 2005)
三、生理委婉语的功能及缺陷
1.满足人们向往健康、美丽、长寿的心理需求。生理委婉语是一个反应人们愿望的语言现象。
2.考虑别人的感受，不想用直率的语言伤害别人。
3.通过使用较间接的词语来减轻人们因不健康的身体状况引起的焦虑，从而使他们不过度担忧健康。
4.减少尴尬、不雅和粗鲁的感觉。
5.增强讲话方式的优雅性。
生理委婉语有其特殊的功能，它使得交际愉快顺利。但它也有局限性。委婉语表达了它所替代的词语所表达的意思，但是随着人们逐渐接受了委婉语，这些委婉语就丧失了愉快婉转的作用，因为它们和它们所取代的词指的是同样的东西。并没有改变这些词所指代的东西的本质。委婉语只能反映人们的主观愿望，所以委婉语有夸张成分，缺少真实价值。
四、人们使用生理委婉语的不同
女性比男性使用委婉语多。女性相对敏感，易考虑其他人感受。她们通常注意说话方式，使语言更优雅动听。而男性则不太在意这
些。
生理委婉语多用在陌生人之间，或者下上级之间。人们的关系越密切委婉语的使用频率越低。
一般来说，一个人受教育程度越高，使用委婉语的几率越大。
五、生理委婉语的新趋势
语言与社会变化密不可分。语言总在发展变化，而作为语言一部分的委婉语也在不断变化。委婉语的变化反映社会的变化。新的委婉语不断出现。如今社会充满了挑战，在英语中与“挑战”相关的生理委婉语在报纸和杂志中频繁出现。例如: “challenge”相关的生理委婉语的用法:disability—physically challenged， fat—nutritiously challenged，short—vertically challenged。
六、结论
作为委婉语的一部分，生理委婉语有其独特的功能和重要角色。它源于一定的文化，并一定程度上满足了人们的心理需求。作为语言现象，它有局限性，但是它却有利于交际的顺利进行。我们应该研究和学习委婉语的作用，以利于交际。
参考文献:
[1]neaman, j.s.,silver, c.g.“kind words” a thesaurus of
euphemisms. new york: facts on file.inc,1990.
[2]陈原.社会语言学.上海:学林出版社，2000.
[3]胡文仲.英美文化辞典.北京:外语教育与研究出版社，1995.
[4]胡文仲.跨越文化的屏障.北京:外语教育与研究出版社，2002.
[5]吕煦.使用英语修辞.北京:清华大学出版社，2005.
范文四：论英语委婉语的特点
On Characteristics of English Euphemism
Thesis Statement: Various characteristics exsit in English euphemism for avoiding or
softening coarse and unpleasantness.
?.Introduction.
.The Origin and Definition of Euphemism ?
?.The Characteristics of English Euphemism
A. Universality
B. Localization
C. Contemporaneity
D. Language Territory
E. National Characteristic
F. Having division of the sentimental color
G. Having life
H. Sociality
I. Re-symbolism
J. Arbitration
K. Relevance and Indirect
L. The English Euphemism of Idiom and Temporary
M. Fuzziness
N. Humorous
O. Accuracy
?.Conclusion
Abstract: Euphemism which is in order to avoid coarse or taboos, exsits in every culture
and society. For learning the culture of English deeply, this thesis mainly talk about the
origin, definition, and characteristics of English from the angle of culture.
Key words: English Euphemism substitute express
论英语委婉语的特点
摘要:在任何文化和社会中都存在一些为避免粗俗或避免禁忌的委婉语。为加深对英
语文化的学习，本文从文化的角度对英语委婉语的起源，定义与特点作了初步的探讨。
关键词:英语 委婉语 替代 表达
On Characteristics of English Euphemism
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1. Introduction
In every society there are many things or taboos can not be spoken or mentioned directly,thus,people use some substitutions to express.They are called euphemism. Euphemism is deeply inserted in language,our daily life and work. Along with unceasingly enhancenent of social civilization, speech skill and good interpersonal relationship also more and more profoundly effect people's life, thus, in the language more and more euphemisms will be produced. Therefore ,it has very important practice significance and practical significance to the euphemism research. But only carefully research the characteristics of euphemism can understand it more accurately, and use it properly.
2. The Origin and Definition of Euphemism
English euphemism has a long history,many euphemism words come from The Bible .And
in The Canterbury Tales written by Chaucer and plays and poems of Shakespeare,varities of euphemism words were applied.When offering sacrifice to Gods or ancestors in old Greek,people should speak some propitious words,which were considered to be
theuphemisms.In Britain,the usage of euphemism could be traced back to 11 century. In that
time,Genteel Vocabulary and Obscene Vocabulary were distinguished obviously.The former is just the precursor of euphemism. In the early 1580’s English writer George Blunt first used word “euphemism”.It originates in Greek prefix “eu” which means “good,sounding well” and stem “pheme” which means “speech or saying”.People applied it in order to avoid mentioning things considered to be taboo and specific unpleasantnesses which relate to such things as accidents,illness,death,sex,excretion,the phenomenon of physiology and natural conduct and so on directly and talk about them in a euphemismistic way.Since 1970’s one of the most largest change in linguistic is euphemism has become popular again.And euphemism,as a language phenomenon now,is applied very frequently and widely.American scholar Hugh Rawson once said: The euphemism is so deeply submerges our language that none of us can get down one day without using it, even the same for those brags themselves the straight forward person. Hence, giving it an accruate definition is quite necessary:
First,George Blunt defined it as:a good or favourable interpretation of a bad word.
Second,in the Radom House College Dictionary it means:the substitution of a mild,indirect,or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh or blunt.
Third,its meaning is: used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: cither one’s own face or through giving offense,that of the audience or of some third party.(Allen,K. and Burridge,K.,1991:18)
Fourth,its definition is: that figure of speech which consists in the substitution of a word or expression of comparatively favourable implication or less unpleasant association, instead of the harsher or more offensive one that would more precisely designate what is intended.(Oxford English Dictionary,1989)
Fifth,the substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague exprssion for one thought substituted.(Webster’s Encyclopedic Unbridged Dictionary of the English language,1996)
Sixth,euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an in offensive or pleasant term for a more explict,offensive one,thereby veneering the truth by using kind words.(Enright D.J.,1985)
Seventh,word,etc,used in place of one avoided as e.g offensive, indecent,or
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alarming.(Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Shanghai Foreign Languages Publishing House,2000)
These definitions above,tell us different meanings,however several similar features follows exsit,
1. Euphemism is a substitution of unpleasant or taboo words.
2. Euphemism should be considered to be a kind of rhetoric skill.
3. Euphemism in the language should be function of softening,alleviating,concealing or
showing politeness.
3.The Characteristics of English Euphemism
3.1 Universality
Euphemizing generally exsits in almost every nation all over the world,no matter how civilized it is.And in every natural languages.both large family of languages and languages of minorities,using euphemism is a common phenomenon.Because almost all cultures seem to have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly.That is,nearly every culture has its own taboos.When them are referred to,people always to substitute them by new beautiful things to make them sound better.Though using euphemism doesn’t express directly,everyone familiar with English can sound what actually meant immediately.And plenty of usages of euphemizing of taboos are accepted commonly by the people. 3.2 Localization
The different regions have the differences naturally,the different customs,the different history,the different culture,and these differences embody the localization of languange.Many euphemisms are related to the folklore,and its localization is clearly(张学平,姜艳苹,于年
湖,1998:145).In Britain condom is called “French letter”,means “a thing of
French ”,while,French call it “capote angise” means “a thing of English”.The same social custom should be dogaded,because different regions have different
formulations.Meanwhile,the similar saying have different meanings in different regions for the difference about culture.Thus,people comprehend the notion of so-called euphemism in different ways.For example, “He is in the bathroom.” American may think he is in the toilet,but English may consider that he is taking a bath.Because the word “bathroom”in British English has the meaning of “bathing”,but in American English it becomes to be a substitution of toilet.
3.3 Contemporaneity
Language emerged in the process of communication,and it was developed,enriched and evolved continuously.In this process,in order to adjust to the specific environment, people should create different euphemism words on certain things,conduct and phenomenon and so on.And people choose different words to communicate in different places.Such as Vanity Fair
Godge mentioned his love,he called his love that business: If I drop,I hope she will never know of that business.When doctor inquire about someone’s illnesses,he could say directly “How is your micturition”.It is not considered to be coarse.Early in mid-century,even
neck,chin,;imb are in the category of taboos,but nowadays such words like leg and sexy would never be vulgar.Language chages frequently all the time,new words appears continuously while the old dispears.Euphemism word is too.Such as the euphemism expression of “to be pregnant” summarized by scholars appeared in different time of English development.It illustrates clearly about the contemporaneity of euphemism.
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She has cancelled all her social engagements.(1856)
She is in an interesting condition.(1880)
She is in adelicate condition.(1895)
She is knitting little bootees.(1910)
She is in a familyway.(1920)
She is expecting.(1935)
She is pregnant.(1956)(李幸2006:163)
Every times has one certain way to express the same thing.100 years later,people speak out the true thing at last.It may be because the speeding of the tempo of modern life,or the improving of the ideological plane,people do not like the redundant words and expressions.
These examples above state clearly that euphemism or euphemizing methods has the essence of contemporaneity.
3.4 Language Territory
Words used in different places,or different sentences have different meanings.because language must be in certain environment.In different language environment or in the same language environment of different age,identity,status,or educating level,euphemism expressions are also different.Such as go to the toilet.Madam may say “to power one’s noise”;Men could say “to go to the toilet”,because nature calls.But children may be called “make number one,go to the pot.”And “to rear” is considered to be the usage of men. “go to W.C” is used by the adult. “convenience station” is written language.Some words may be
idiom,or joke and so on.Such as “John” is idiom, “bathroom” is oral English,and “poet’s
comer” is just the word of crack jokes.
Therefore,when euphemism is applied,we should pay attention to language
environment,choosing the different words of features in type of writing,to make sentence more correct,more polite.
3.5 National Characteristic
A part euphemism words is general in most of national languages,but another part has the strong national characteristics. If the Chinese places " lao " behind the surname, such as " Li lao ", “zhang lao”, not only demonstrated the age is large, but contains deeper respect.But the situation is exactly opposite in British and American countries, "old" is the topic of taboo.Because British and American emphasize competition and independence, if a person were old,he would lose his status in competition.Therefore, people often use "senior citizen","elderly people"or"seasoned men" to refer to the old, these two phrases all contain to esteem highly and the meaning for respecting. In Western culture, asking others’age, income,
marital status, religious belief and political tendencies are considered to be infringement of privacy and discourteous behavior.In these aspects, there are plenty of euphemisms,and some of them have obvious religious overtones.Such as “God”(the All-Knowing), “Satan”(the Evil),
“By Gad”, “By Golly”, “By Gosh”, “By Gum”,”By Jove”(By God),”dash”, “drat”, “doggone”,
“G-D-you”(God damn) and so on.Because countries such as The United States ,The United Kingdom,and Canada believe in God and Christianity. The most national citizens are initiative believe in God,and all more or less thought that God is omnipotent. Although religions influence is not deep to the people’s heart like before, but religion is still profound to the
Western society psychology's influence and it could not underestimate. Even if people do not believe God ,they are not willing to use words which may offend God and the devil. Therefore
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formed a set of euphemism words to involve the religion, and covering taboos and swear words.
3.6 Having division of the sentimental color
Mentions approximately, euphemism some are lofty, some are affectionate and some are the vulgar bodies. For example, in the expression of death " to die " in meaning a series of euphemism words, a part has the lofty color; Like " to expire " “to pay the debt of nature "" to sleep " and so on, but has another part for the affectionate of spoken language, slang or vulgar body, like " to kick the buck ", “to go west”(张廷茂1996:451).To different people,the using
of euphemism words is different.They have obvious division of the sentimental color. 3.7 Having life
Some euphemisms having once completed its social intercourse mission would not be existence, but some then are given new life in the long-term usage,(its meanings) are accepted broadly and inherit to take over down, becoming fixed phrase language or direct expression synonym, and exist in vocabulary.Such as euphemism of the expression of liquor teases: “mediline”, “highcap”, “eye-opener” and so on;And also have some substitutions of trousers , “inexpressibles”, “unwhisperables”, “unspeakable”, “one-must-not-men”, “indiscribables”
and so on.
3.8 Sociality
The language is a kind of social phenomenon, the different society could not exert a same expression method. Even if in identical society's different social class, social stratum, even different profession in the identical social class, the social stratum as well as the quantity of people under diferent culture background using the euphemism should be also different. For example the word “dead”, in each society, in each culture has the different expression methods. According to concerned scholars statistics, in Chinese the expression of “dead” reaches more than 300, according to the incomplete statistics, in English it probably has more than 230. If in consideration of those tactful parlance of temporary, its amount would be far over this data.Like person believing in Marxist will speak "to see a Marx";Person believing in Christianity will say "be with God".In brief, the euphemizing would be inevitably applied if one wants to performance in the society.
3.9 Re-symbolism
From the definition of euphemism,we can know clearly that euphemism is using one expression to replace another. “That is to say,euphemism is a re-symbolizing of
things,ideas,or events already symbolized with precision in mind. Therefore people can’t randomly utilize an expression to euphemize the taboos.The re-symbolizing should provide clues to catch the intended meaning of the taboos and should sound indirect or pleasanter.”Hence,euphemism is a kind of substitution in fact,it is a manifestation of re-sybolism.
3.10 Arbitration
Euphemisms come from daily life,and most of them come from ordinary
people.Thus,arbitration is one of the most important characteristics of modern euphemism.Once a man was interviewed on a farm on the west of Canada,he called bull “he call”and “gentleman cow”.He used euphemism very optional.And some expressions of going
to the toilet are also applied freely.Such as “pass water”, “go to school”,and “wash one’s hand” and so on.
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3.11 Relevance and Indirect
Don't need to dispute, this is the biggest characteristics of euphemism.Using euphemism just use its underlying way to express and avoid mentioning things or phenomenon directly which may make people uhpleasant.It is the essence of euphemism.Therefore,indirect indirect is one of euphemism main charateristics.
Relevance is that euphemism must enable the human to be associates with what it mentions.Euphemism is a substitution of taboo,but it could not substitute things freely.It substitute when is necessary and connection with the taboo.It is called relevance.There is an example:In a few minutes the “madam”,as the current word characterized this type of
women,appeared… “madam” is always a polite name of women,but here what actually refers to is the brothel madam. This manifested the euphemism to avoid awkward case which is caused by people speaking without reservation. This is just the reason that euphemism enjoys the favor..
3.12 The English Euphemism of Idiom and Temporary
Many euphemisms in people's long time's use, have become the fixed expression, already become idiom, and entered English glossary. Some identical meaning's content uses the different euphemisms to substitute in different unceaingly.Such as,mad which is instead by crazy,insane,lunatic,mentallyderanged and so on.Some euphemisms are temporary.For example,a man used “euphemism” as “the toilet”,because he once misunderstood his guest’s punctuation mark within words.The guest said:I need,to use a euphemism,to wash up.But he believed that he need to use a euphemism to wash up.
3.13 Fuzziness
Fuzziness is a basic feature of euphemism.In order to avoid mentioning some notions,things or taboos directly,people alwalys use semantic obscurity to take place of the precise words.The euphemism fuzziness could conceal the brutal reality.There are some examples.We do not say “blind”but say “visual retarded,sight-deprived”;we do not say “be old”,but say
“meet with the second childhood;reach one’s golden age”;and we do not say “idiot”,but say “totally dependant”.To avoid mentioning the term death,people take pains to substitute it with the terms of pass away,be with God,go to a better world,etc. Moreover, when refers to disease, to avoid vulgarly, the people conceal the truth with the fuzzy words and expressions. For example, some diseases which cure with difficulties. Such as pulmonary tuberculosis before the 1950s and the cancer of contemporary and AIDS, they are incurable illnesses which make people fear deeply. Once suffers, people just liked being sentenced to death. Therefore, massive euphemism words related to illness are formed in English. Like “falls ill” (be out of
sorts), “scarlet” (fever), “disease” (disorder), “stroke” (accident), “disgusting”, (stomach
awareness), “vomit” (lose a meal), “diarrhea” (Mexican toothache), “pulmonary tuberculosis”
(breast complaint), “syphilis” (bad blood), “gonorrhea” (hat and cap), and “AIDS” (social
disease ),and so on.(张旭,李盈光2000:27)
Therefore,if there is no fuzziness euphemism will lose its euphemismistic value. 3.14 Humorous
In the human communcation humorous is one kind perfect way to please others. The euphemistic expression is always likely more pleasant than the direct expression, others also easy to accept. Because it can manifest the humorous effect. The humorous euphemism can help the people facing the reality with ease.People use “push up daisies” to substitute “be
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buried” so as to ease people’s fear of death.People changing “be sent into prison” into “live at government’s expencse”,can be obviously reduce one’s pressure.
3.15 Accuracy
Stemming from human communication’s need, people do not state the matter directly, but uses the relatively tactful express —the usage of euphemism,thus,an identical matter has the
different expression methods. When using different expression methods should be according to the different linguistic environment, the goal and the request, each expression in the specific linguistic environment is most accurate.For example,there is many words means “to
die”,such as “go depart”, “decease”, “pass away”, “brethe one’s debt to nature”, “be in heaven”, “be with God” and so on. In the daily life, people are often not willing to say some kind of misfortune, particularly “the death", so usually change to express with
euphemism.The expression concerning die which enumerates up above compare to say "die" directly to be more tactful, and make the person accept the fact of this misery easily. 4. Conclusion
In summary, the euphemism is one language performance form which people seek in the social communication. It is created for ideal communication effect.It uses for replacing the taboo language, the discussion sensitive topic generally. The using of euphemism may avoid stimulating, comfort for the human; When replacing the taboo language it can eliminate vulgarly, and give people elegant impression; Simultaneously the euphemism sometimes may be showy,and sometimes also have the sense of humor. Being good at euphemizing is a manifestation of high accomplishment, but using it excessively would give people affected feeling. Therefore, we must pay attention to the usage of euphemism in the process of communication. In brief, understanding and having a good command of the euphemism can be understood more effectively. At the same time, it also has the inspiration and guiding function to English teaching, particularly can raise the Trans-Culture sense of student.
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References
张旭、李盈光 《浅谈中西禁忌语的文化内涵与范畴》山东外语教学2000年第二期 27-30 谢宗先 《浅析委婉语—兼谈禁忌语》广西大学学报(哲学社会科学版)87-91 张廷茂 《英语委婉语刍议》， 《玉溪师专报》(社会科学版)1996年第12卷 第5期 徐慧 《科技信息》 121-123
甘智英 《浅谈英语委婉语》，《文史博览》 2007年 23-24
邢襄平 《浅谈英语委婉语》，《语言文字》2006年 192-193
邓海 《英语委婉语的特点及其应用》，《西南民族学报》(哲学社会科学版)1999年 125-128
李幸 《刍议英语委婉语的表达》，《湖北经济学院报》(人文社会科学版)2006年 第一期 第三卷 163-164
张学平、姜艳苹、于年湖 《委婉语》北京:新华出版社，1998年2月 刘寅齐 《英语委婉语的特点，构造及应用》，《外语与外语教学》，2000年第八期 张维友，《英语词汇学教程》，湖北，华中师范大学出版社 199-201 http://210.40.132.153:8080/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=4839
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范文五：英语委婉语的特点及应用
龙源期刊网 http://www.qikan.com.cn
英语委婉语的特点及应用
作者：赵丽娜
来源：《教育界·上旬》2015年第01期
【摘 要】在任何一个社会中，都有些不能直截了当说出来的话。在人们交际的过程中，有些词语使人尴尬，惹人不快，招人讨厌或令人害怕，所以直接表达出来会给人一种粗俗、轻浮、无礼的印象。因此在一些场合，为了避免难堪，或减轻对人的感情伤害，人们创造了委婉语。
【关键词】英语委婉语 ; ;语境 ; ;特点 ; ;应用
一、引言
委婉语是人类社会中普遍存在的一种语言现象，是用语言来调剂人际关系的一个重要手段。它是一种修辞格，更是一种文化现象。由于委婉语具有较强的说服力，拥有很好的修饰效果，所以遍及生活中的各个层次，各个角落，倍受人们喜爱。英语委婉语也已成为英语文化中不可割舍的一部分，是英语最重要的组成部分。
二、英语委婉语的产生
Euphemism 一词源于希腊语的前缀eu （=good，sounding well，好的，好听的）和词根pheme （=speech or saying，话语或好话）。Euphemism 字面上的意思就是“use of pleasant ，mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones（用好听的话或令人愉快的方式表达）”。其意就是“用一种令人愉快的，委婉有礼的，听起来顺耳的词语来取代令人不快的、粗鲁无礼的、听起来刺耳的词语”。
三、英语委婉语的特点
（一）民族性委婉语是世界文化中普遍的语言现象
不同国家、不同民族所处的自然环境和社会环境不同，生产方式、生活方式、文化沉淀各异，因而不同语言中的委婉语必然也存在相当的差异，这种差异的体现，正是委婉语民族特点的体现。
（二）地域性
俗话说：“十里不同风，百里不同俗。”不同地域风俗习惯自然多有差异，这种差异体现在语言当中就是语言的地域性差异。委婉语多与民间俗讳相关，其地域性自然也就分外显明。如面包是英国人的家常食品，因此就出现了用“take bread out of someone's mouth”来表示 “抢走某
