范文一:交际语言的差异
交际语言的差异
一、 路遇熟人。中国人:吃饭了吗?到哪里去?上班呀? 西 方 人 :Hello! How do you do! Nice day,is ’ tit?
二、 对别人的赞扬:
中国人表示谦虚说:惭愧。哪里。寒舍。 拙文。 。 。 。 。 。 西方人高兴地接受说:Thank you.
三、 接待客人:
中 国 人 一 杯 杯 的 斟 酒 , 一 遍 遍 的 上 菜 , 客 人 不 吃不行,不喝不行。
西方人的习惯是 Help yourself, please.
四、 送客人:
中国主人对客人常说:慢走。小心点。再见,走好啊。 回去吧。请留步。
西方人说:Byebye. See you late. See you next Time. Good night.
范文二:交际语言的差异
交际语言的差异
(开头语
1。称谓用语,在汉语里,一般只有彼此熟悉亲密的人之间才可以“直呼其名” 。但在西方, “直呼其名”比在汉语里的范围要广得多。在西方,常用“先生”和“夫人”来称呼不知其 名的陌生人,对十几或二十几岁的女子可称呼“小姐” ,结婚了的女性可称“女士”或“夫 人”等。在家庭成员之间,不分长幼尊卑,一般可互称姓名或昵称。在家里,可以直接叫爸 爸、 妈妈的名字。 对所有的男性长辈都可以称 “叔叔” , 对所有的女性长辈都可以称 “阿姨” 。 这在我们中国是不行的,必须要分清楚辈分、老幼等关系,否则就会被认为不懂礼 貌。 ...AddressingBoth western and Chinese people have two kinds of personal names---a surname and
a given name. But the order and the use of these names in the two languages are
somewhat different. In Chinese, the surname comes first and then the given name
. And people like add“小” before their family name. Such as“小王” 、 “小郑” 、
“小李” 、 “小徐” and so on.. While westerners names are written and spoken with
the given name first and the family name last. So John Smith's family name is Smith, not John. In a formal setting, address men as
.
Miss
the abbreviations
Ph.D., they will often be addressed as
are addressed as
westerners will introduce each other by first name, without titles, and occasionally by just the last name. If you are introduced to somebody by first name, you can address him or her by first name the next time you meet. The only exception would be for someone who holds an important position, such as the university president or provost. Unless they tell you otherwise, faculty should be addressed
using their title and last name (e.g.,
It is also appropriate to ask how they prefer to be addressed. Children should
always address adults in the formal fashion, using their title and last name.
Another difference is about the form of addressing. From the viewpoint of sociolinguistics, forms of addressing can serve as an indication of the relationship of power and solidarity in the society. In calling their superiors or elders, the
Chinese are accustomed to the nonreciprocal or asymmetrical addressing, in other words. They use “title +surname” to address their superior or elders rather
than call them surnames, while the superior or elders call the addressers their
names. The Chinese tend to abide by the polite principle of depreciating oneself
and respecting others to show appropriate respects towards the persons being addressed, otherwise, the addresser may be considered as ill mannered, ill educated or rude. But in English speaking countries, people have a tendency to follow the reciprocal or symmetrical addressing. Although they are different in age and
status, they can call the other directly, namely, their names, even first names
except when they call the doctors, not arousing offence between them, but demonstrating the sense of intimacy and the conception of” Everyone is created equal”
. Chinese people feel unnatural addressing a westerner by his given name, feeling that it indicates too close a relationship, and westerners, on the other hand,
may feel that if a Chinese insists on using his surname, it indicates an unwillingness to be friendly and maintains a gap between them. So the use of forms like” Miss Mary” or “Mr. Smith ” may be
a Chinese forms of compromise. With Miss Mary, the use of the given name indicates friendliness,
but the addition of the title indicates the respect they feel they ought to show. And with Smith, the
lack of a title indicates friendliness, but the use of the surname prevents if sounding too intimate. However, both addressing used by the Chinese sound very strange and uncomfortable to the westerner.
2。 。问候语,劝告和建议
Asking Personal Affairs
People from China do not regard it as asking personal affairs when they ask others name、 year 、 marital status、 wages 、 personal life、 belief and political points. It is regard as concerns. While the westerns will think you 侵犯 their right
of privacy. when we talk to the westerns, we must avoid asking some questions like this:“ How old are you?” 、 “ Are you married?” 、 “ How many children do you
have ?” 、 “ How much do you make?” 、 “ What ’ s your weight?” 、 “ Do you go to the church?” 西方人非常注重个人隐私权。在日常交谈中,大家一般不会涉及对方的“私人问题” 。这些 私人问题包括:年龄、婚姻状况、收入、工作、住所、经历、宗教信仰、选举等
In China, we always say “你辛苦了! ” 、 “你一定累了吧! ” to show our consideration when somebody from far place. While the westerners do it in a different way.
They will say
are all express in psychological aspect. Concerning the old people is the virtue of human race. But different cultures have different styles. In China, people
will say“您年纪大了,你坐吧! ” when they 让座 to a old man. But this is regarded
as taboo.
如在和病人告别时,中国人常说“多喝点开水” 、 “多穿点衣服” 、 “早点休息”之类的话,表 示对病人的关怀。但西方人绝不会说 “多喝水”之类的话,因为这样说会被认为有指手画脚 之嫌。比如他们会说“多保重”或“希望你早日康复”等等。一位美国同事感冒了,中国同 事表示关心
Chinese: You look pale. What's the matter?
American: I'm feeling sick. A cold, maybe.
Chinese: Go and see the doctor. Drink more water. Did you take any pills? Chinese medicine works wonderful. Would you like to try? Put on more clothes. Have a good rest.
American: You are not my mother, are you?
文化差异:美国人比较看中个人的独立性。 受人照顾往往被视为弱者。 给对方出主意或提建 议时, 不能使对方认为自己小看他的能力。 美国人对上面第一句话的反应通常是
特别忠告:对病人表示关心,不必尽提建议。
特别成就感:(1) I'm sorry to hear that (you've got a bad cold).
(2)I hope you'll be all right very soon.
(3)Take extra care of yourself.
(4)That's too bad. What's the matter?
(5)How are you feeling now?
无论是中国人, 还是西方人, 都喜欢向自己的亲朋好友提一些友好的建议和劝告, 以示 关心和爱护。但中西方人在提劝告和建议的方式上却有很大区别。
中国人向朋友提建议和劝告的时候,往往都非常直接,常用“应该” 、 “不应该” , “要” 、 “不要”这些带有命令口气的词。比如, “天气很冷,要多穿点衣服,别感冒了! ” 、 “路上很 滑,走路要小心! ” 、 “你要多注意身体! ” 、 “你该刮胡子了! ” 、 “你该去上班了! ”等。
西方人在向亲朋好友提劝告和建议的时候,措词非常婉转,比如, “今天天气很冷,我 要是你的话,我会加件毛衣” 、 “你最好还是把胡子刮了吧。 ”一般来说,双方关系越接近, 说话的语气越直接。但在西方 , 即使是最亲密的人之间,也不会使用像我们那样的命令语 气。否则,会被认为不够尊重自己独立的人格。
无论是中国人, 还是西方人, 都喜欢向自己的亲朋好友提一些友好的建议和劝告, 以示 关心和爱护。但中西方人在提劝告和建议的方式上却有很大区别。
中国人向朋友提建议和劝告的时候,往往都非常直接,常用“应该” 、 “不应该” , “要” 、 “不要”这些带有命令口气的词。比如, “天气很冷,要多穿点衣服,别感冒了! ” 、 “路上很 滑,走路要小心! ” 、 “你要多注意身体! ” 、 “你该刮胡子了! ” 、 “你该去上班了! ”等。
西方人在向亲朋好友提劝告和建议的时候,措词非常婉转,比如, “今天天气很冷,我 要是你的话,我会加件毛衣” 、 “你最好还是把胡子刮了吧。 ”一般来说,双方关系越接近, 说话的语气越直接。但在西方 , 即使是最亲密的人之间,也不会使用像我们那样的命令语 气。否则,会被认为不够尊重自己独立的人格。
3。 Greeting and Parting
When people meet acquaintances or friends, people usually greet each other
. The purpose of greeting is to establish or maintain social contact. So formulaic expressions are often used, but such formulaic expressions often causes conflict because of the great cultural differences between Chinese and native English
speakers. In English, people often employ the following expressions to greet each other “Good morning/evening/afternoon. “Fine day, isn’t it? ”How is everything going?” Have you eaten yet?” What are you going to do?” Where have you
been?” etc. Westerners treat them as real question. While in Chinese, we always
say “你吃了吗?” “你上哪里去?” “你干什么去?” to show our consideration. Parting may be divided into two steps. Before the final prating, there is usual a
leave-taking. Western and Chinese cultures have diverse ways to deal with leave-
takings. Firstly, in English society, during the closing phase of an encounter,
from ”I” perspective, reasons for terminating the encounter are presented in mitigatory comments. Typical comments are associated with expressions of apology,
such as “I” am afraid I must be off, I have to relieve the baby-sitter” etc.
Western people believe that to be willing to visit and converse with someone is
to have respect for him.; to terminate the visiting is not of one’s own free will, but because of some other arrangements, therefore they always try to make their leaving sound reluctant by finding some reasons and apologize for it to make the leaving acceptable for both parties. English speakers often signal several
times before leaving. “Well, it’s been nice to see you again. I do enjoy our
talk and the lovely dinner, but I must be going soon”. Thank you very much for
asking me over. I hope we’ll be able to get together again before long…” Consolidation in a wider range of common acquaintances also occurs, in expressions such as “Say hello to Jack for me” or “Remember me to John”. In Chinese society, during the closing phase of and encounter, usually, from a “ you ” perspective, reasons for ending the encounter are set forth in mitigatory expressions. Such expressions include“你挺忙的,我就不多打扰了。 ” “你一定累了,早点休 息吧,我
要告辞了。 ” , etc. With these words, they may stand up from their seats. Chinese
leave-taking is very short and quick. Western people think it so abrupt that they have not prepare for it. While moving to the door, Chinese employ expressions
of apology like“对不起没, 打扰了。 ” “对不起, 占用你不少时间。 ” It should be noted that these expressions employed by Chinese guests to show concern for their
hosts can only be appropriate for business visits in the English environment
4、 赞美 Compliments and ResponseTo compliment is to praise the addressee’ s virtues, ability, behavior, appearance, clothing, personality and belongs. Appropriate compliments can serve as effective supplementary means in inter-personal communication. Western and Chinese culture are at polar opposites about compliment. An western hostess, if she is complimented for her cooking skill, is likely to say,” Oh, I am so glad that you
liked it. I cook it especially for you.” Not so is a Chinese hostess, who will
instead apologize for giving you “ Nothing ” . They will say“随便作几个菜,不好吃
。 ” If translate this into English“ I just made some dishes casually and they are not very tasty. Perhaps the foreigner will think why you invite me to you family and have the untasty food. You aren't respect me. The English-speaking people
are more active to praise others and to be praise than Chinese people. For example, the Americans are “straight forwardness”, the Chinese take pride in “modesty”. That modesty has left many a Chinese hungry at an Americans table, for Chinese politeness calls for three refusals before one accepts an offer and the Americans hosts take ”no ” to mean “no ”, whether it is the first, second or
third time. Still bigger differences exist in people’s attitude towards compliments, i.e., in the response to compliments. Chinese are tend to efface themselves in words or refuse it, although they do feel comfortable about the compliments
. So many westerners simply feel puzzled or even upset when their Chinese friends refused their compliments. The Chinese people are not intending to be modest with the sacrifice of friendship in so doing, but it is rather
due to the traditional Chinese philosophy, that of modesty. The Chinese people
regard modesty as a most valuable virtue, so they seldom agree to the compliment
on their own.
我们一直视谦虚为美德。不论是对于自己的能力还是成绩,总是喜欢自谦。如果不这样可 能会被指责为“不谦虚” 、 “狂妄自大” 。
而外国人特别是西方人没有自谦的习惯。 他们认为, 一个人要得到别人的承认, 首先必 须自我肯定。所以,他们对于自己的能力和成绩总是实事求是地加以评价。
We always regard modestly are the moral excellence.No matter is regarding own ability or the result, always likes modestly.If not like this possibly can be “is immodest” by the accusation, “conceitedly”. But the foreigner is specially the westerner not modest custom.They believed that, a person wants to obtain others acknowledgment, first must the self.Therefore, they always realistically appraise regarding own ability and the result.
一位学校领导向教师们介绍新来的美国老师
Ladies and gentlemen, I'm delighted to introduce to you a very pretty girl, Miss Brown. She is a very good teacher from the USA.对这番话,美国女教师一脸难堪的样子。
文化差异:中国人介绍来宾, 喜欢用褒扬的话语言辞。 但美国人认为, 初次结识, 相互介绍, 不必评头论足。凡是主观性的评论,尽管是美言,也会给人唐突、强加的感觉。对以上那番 话,美国女教师感到难堪的是 pretty 和 good 两个词。在那种场合,介绍应该突出背介绍人 的身份、学历、职务等,而不应该是外貌和抽象的评论。相比之下,如果把 pretty 和 good 改成实际教育背景和经历, 这样的介绍句比较客观, 令人容易接受。 比较下面改变措辞的介 绍:
Ladies and gentlemen, I'm delighted to introduce to you a new teacher from the USA., Miss Ann Brown. She is a doctor of American Literature with experience of teaching English as a Foreign Language.
5道歉语,感谢语,回答, 1) Apologies and ResponsesIf wrong things are done, there must be apologies .As to how to offer apologies,
both western and Chinese people may “I am sorry….”,”I apologize for…”. Etc. But Chinese would like to apologize for the crowded state of their dwellings
and for small numbers of dishes, although the room is big enough and there are many dishes. Chinese stay these to express self-depreciation only out of courtesy
, not having other implication. But the westerners would wonder, since the room
is so large and there are so many dishes, why do they say so. May be they do not
welcom e our visit, they don’t like us to eat more. When Chinese contact with westerners, if they do not know these differences, if will lead to misunderstanding. The ways to respond to apologies are different, too.
A: Oh, I’m sorry. I forget it.
B1: It doesn’t matter.
B2: That’s all right.
B2 is westerners. B1 is a Chinese person. “ It doesn’ t matter” is a translation of “没关系” from Chinese, which is a common pattern in Chinese to respond to
apologies. If a Chinese uses this to respond to apologies, westerners will think
that he is a sharp person, who simply cannot forgive a very little wrong thing.
2) Thanks and Responses
“ Thank you” is widely used in English to show gratitude in such cases as being
invited, helped, given a gift, etc. Cultural differences exist between Chinese
and western in how to express thanks and responses. In fact, “Thank you” is uttered in English for
more than acknowledging favor or gratitude, and it is often
a means to show politeness. On many occasions, the English use this utterance while the Chinese may say “有劳您了。 ” or do not say a word at all but just smile or nod. As a matter of fact, “ Thank you ” is used more widely by westerners
than Chinese use“谢谢” , for minor favors like borrowing pencil , asking directions, requesting someone to pass on a message , receiving a telephone, etc. “ Thank you ” not only shows politeness but also carries a person’ s grateful feeling for those who offer help. Without using expressions of gratitude, misunderstandings may arise because the help seems to be taken for granted and is mot appreciated, For westerners, each person is an equal individual, whether he is a family member of not. In Chinese, “谢谢” is not frequently used between intimate friends and family members because it may imply a certain distance between the addresser and the addressee. Native speakers may respond to “Thank you ” by saying
: You are welcome /It’ s a /my pleasure/ Not at all/ Don’ t mention it/That’ s all right. While Chinese people may say:“这是我应该做的” , which may convey to
westerners the message that the Chinese did not really want to do it, or that he
/she did it only because it wall his/her duty. This message is quite different
from what the Chinese speaker intended to express.
我们会天天跟礼仪打交道, 也许礼仪会带来好运, 步入社会, 我们的言行举止和我们的品质 在人际交往中总要受到人们的监督, 每一次我们步入社会, 都必须进入其他人的视野中, 我 们最近的是非得失, 都会被人注意到, 如果不具备所应有的礼仪, 一个穿着在豪华的人也会 尝到失败,让人鄙视的滋味,一个人如果具备礼仪中的一部分,或许,这就会为他将来 的 事业,所以现代礼仪对我们还是很重要的,
we can have the social dealings daily with theetiquette, perhaps the etiquette can bring the good luck, marches intothe society, our words and deeds manner and our quality must receivepeople's surveillance in the human communication, every we march intothe society, all must enter in other people's fields of vision, ourrecent right and wrong success and failure, can note by the person, ifdoes not have the etiquette which should have, Puts on also can experience the defeat in the luxurious person, lets taste which the persondespises, a person if has in an etiquette part, perhaps, this will beable for him future the enterprisetherefore the modern etiquette to us will be very important
范文三:跨性别交际中语言差异初探
2008年 5月 学 术 交 流 May , 2008
总第 170期 第 5期 Acade m ic Exchange Serial No . 170 No . 5
[收稿日期 ]2008-01-28
[作者简介 ]骆越虹 (1975-) , 女 , 哈尔滨人 , 讲师 , 从事中西语言与文化研究。
跨性别交际中语言差异初探
骆 越 虹
(哈尔滨学院 外语学院 , 哈尔滨 150080)
[摘 要 ]语言是文化的载体 , 文化制约影响着语言 , 言中得到了一定体现 。 在跨文化交际中 , 、 交际风 格 、 心理定势 、 , 关 。只有了解不同性 , , 才能克服性别文化差异所导致的交际失误 , 达 。
[关键词 ]跨文化交际 ; 性别语言 ; 交际失误
[中图分类号 ]H195 [文献标志码 ]A [文章编号 ]1000-8284(2008) 05-0148-03
语言的使用因性别而异 , 男性和女性在语言运用过 程中存在着语音语调 、 词汇 、 句法结构等方面的差异 。在 语言学领域 , 早在 1922年 , O. Jes pers on 在其 Its Nature,
Devel opment and O rigin 的文章中就探讨了女性语言和思
想的缺陷 。 真正运用语言学理论对语言性别差异现象进 行研究的是 R. Lakoff, 她的观点集中反映在其 1973年发 表的 Women ’ s Place in Language 中 , 她认为女性语言本身 是男权社会中以男性语言为标准的偏离
[1]
, 与 Jes pers on
的观点基本一致 。 近几年来 , 我国一些学者如李经伟 、 肖 建安 、 于国栋和吴亚欣 , 赵蓉晖和李金凤等人对国外语言 性别研究的发展变化特征进行了较全面的介绍 , 从不同 的角度分析了言语行为性别差异和影响因素 。造成这些 差异的原因除了与两性的生理心理特征有关 , 还与后天 所处的社会文化环境有一定的关系 。 不同性别的人们在 交际时 , 由于缺乏对不同性别语言特点的认识 , 往往会不 自觉地以自己的性别文化规则解释 、 判断和评价对方的 言语和非言语行为 , 相互的误解就在所难免 [2], 就有可能 出现交际失误 。 为了尽量避免跨性别交际中双方出现交 际失误 , 本文主要从社会文化角度探讨男女在交际过程 中的语言差异 , 分析男女在交际模式上的特点以及造成 这些差异和性别交际失误的社会文化根源 , 并提出一些 为成功进行跨性别交际所应注意和回避方面的问题 , 以 达到有效交际的目的 , 推动两性交际的和谐发展 。
一 、 性别语言差异的特征
男性和女性在语言使用中的差异主要表现在以下几
个方面 :
(一 ) 语音语调方面
研究表明 , 女性比男性更为经常地使用超高音或超 低音 。 女性的发音一般比较清楚 , 而男性较含混 。生理 差异是男女语音差别的物质条件 , 同时社会心理也要求 女性说话柔声细语 , 清晰流畅 [3]。男女两性由于不同的 心理体验 , 内心世界和感情色彩是不同的 , 女性通常情况 下比男性的感情细腻和丰富 。女性说话时多使用升调 , 语调变化丰富且富有表现力 。男性多用降调 , 语调变化 少 , 表现出坚定确切 , 同时又显得武断粗鲁 。张爱玲曾举 例说 :“ 即使是在 Sesa me Street 这样有着明显教育意图的 卡通里 , 其角色中雄兽 (boy monster ) 勇猛且声音粗哑 , 而 雌兽 (girl monster ) 则胆怯且音调尖高 。 由于声音尖高 , 女 性聚会在英语中常被称为 hen sessi ons, 其贬义不言自
明 。 [4]
”
(二 ) 词汇方面
两性语言在词汇选择方面也存在着差异 。 Lakoff 在 其著作中提出了女性语言在措辞上的特点 :1. 具体化的 词汇 2. 弱化的咒骂语 [5]。 女性颜色词语的掌握能力强于 男性 , 她们善于区分不同的颜色 。 mauve (紫红色 ) , beige
(米色 ) , aqua marine (蓝绿色 ) , lavender (淡紫色 ) , magenta (洋红色 ) 等颜色词是女性专用词 , 男性很少使用 。在感
叹词的使用上 , 男女也有差别 。如男性爱用 da mn, shit,
hell 等词 , 而女性则使用 oh dear, fudge, my goodness 等词 。
女性的用词比较文雅 , 不使用粗俗语言 , 常使用委婉语和
?
841?
情态动词来表示礼貌 、 客气 [6]。女性的言语常常带有浓 厚的感情色彩 。 她们常常过多地使用带有夸张意义的形 容词 , 诸如 gorgeous, l ovely, cute, divine, adorable, darling, p reci ous, s weet, char m ing 等 。 如 :Your dress is t oo adorable . 而男性常常用 good, very, really, utterly 等平淡的字眼来加 强效果 。
(三 ) 句法结构方面
一种比较普遍的看法是 , 女性语言中的礼貌成分和 恭维话更多 , 更看重与交际伙伴之间的团结与合作 [7]。 男性更多的使用祈使句和命令句发出表示请求或命令 , 如 “ Open the window! ” , 句式结构较直接 ; 女性则喜欢用带 有 “ could, m ight ” 等情态动词的句 子间 接 发 出 请 求 , 如 “ Could you open the window f or me? ” ,
,
会说 “ He t that, ” , He can ’ t do that . 根据文献 [5]的介绍 , Lakoff 认为这是因为 女性在社会上常缺乏自信 , 不像男性使用时所表达的交 际功能是对信息的确认 。总的来说 , 女性语言带有浓厚 的感情色彩 , 语气较委婉和模糊 。男性语言更直接 、 更肯 定 。
二 、 性别语言差异产生的原因
两性的生理差别是性别语言差异的原因之一 , 而社 会文化对性别语言的影响则更为深刻 。以下从社会分 工 、 社会地位和权势 、 性别原型 、 心理因素等角度解释两 性间的语言差异现象 。
(一 ) 社会分工
在人类早期的社会发展过程中 , 由于男性的精力和 体力都优于女性 , 他们的劳动从开始的捕鱼 、 狩猎转向农 业和畜牧养殖业 , 而女性则要花较多的时间养育子女和 操持家务 , 她们的角色囿于家庭琐事中 。这种早期原始 分工发展延续至今 , 当今社会的基本现状是男性在与经 济 、 政治 、 军事 、 技术相关的行业中充当主力军 , 而女性的 社会角色多为家庭主妇以及护士 、 保姆 、 秘书助理等带有 服务性质的职业 。久而久之 , 男性在社会中的经济地位 越来越高 , “ 男主外 , 女主内 ” 的固定模式在人们的头脑中 形成 。 这种社会分工必然要反映到语言中 。在英语中 , bread winner (养家糊口之人 ) 专指男性 , 而 house -wife 指 专门伺候丈夫 , 操持家务 , 养育孩子的女性 。 man 一词既 指 “ 男性 , 男子汉 ” , 又指不分性别的 “ 人 , 人类 ” 。
(二 ) 社会地位和权势
圣经 《 创世纪 》 中关于上帝造人的传说在西方社会文 化中奠定了男性强权地位的基础 , 上帝造了亚当为天下 第一个男人 , 而世上第一个女人夏娃只是上帝用亚当的 一根肋骨造成的 , 是亚当的“ 骨中骨 , 肉中肉 ” , 男性处于 掌控社会权势的地位 。 “ 男主外 , 女主内 ” 的性别分工暗 示了男性在社会生活中所占据的主导地位以及女性的附 属角色 。 而 “ 男强女弱 , 男尊女卑 ” 传统观念作为无处不 在的权力影响并压制着女性 。在言语交际中 , 一般来说 , 男性处于强势 、 支配的地位 , 而女性则处于弱势 、 受支配 的地位 。 “ 权势 ” 问题成了男女在言语交际中性别差异的 体现 , 是产生言语交际不平等的根本原因之一 。由于男 性常常处于政治和经济上的优势地位 , 他们往往拥有很 强的驾驭女性的优越感 。在与女性对话时 , 或者盛气凌 人 , 或者主观武断 [8], 以此来树立自己的权威与自信 。而 处于非优势一方的女性在交际过程中往往会更多地使用 赞美词 、 , 以弥补自己缺 。
” 、 “ 自然性别 ” 而提
征 、 角色 、 活动及责任 , 是社会对两性及两性关系的期待 、 要求和评价 [9]。 这种期待会构成相对固定的性别原型 , 存在于人们的观念之中 , 构成了强大的社会压力 , 使人自 觉地或被迫地规范自己的行为 , 朝着既定的性别原型靠 拢 。 几千年的传统文化中 , 男性在家庭中 , 占有主导地 位 , 承担着大部分的经济生产任务 , 是家庭经济的支柱 , 而女性由于自身所具有的孕育 、 哺育的生理特点 , 逐步失 去了参加经济生产的权利 , 开始在家庭中失去经济地位 , 变成了 “ 生孩子的工具 ” , 成为男人的附庸 , 并在经济上完 全依赖男人 。 在这种家庭分工作用下逐渐形成的男女两 性特定的不同活动方式深刻地影响到他们的后代 , 使男 女两性心理发展的性别差异得以代代传递和延续 。在这 种社会背景和文化氛围中成长的男女 , 从小到大都潜移 默化地受到这种传统的社会性别文化的熏陶和影响 。社 会对男女性别角色的期望是时代的产物 , 随时代的发展 而发展的 , 因此不同时期男女的性别原型是有差异的 。 总体而言 , 男性的性别原型比较偏向于勇敢 、 刚强 、 率直 、 责任 、 积极主动等 , 而女性比较偏向于温柔 、 善良 、 含蓄 、 文静 、 勤俭 、 体贴等 。 这些反映在语言上表现为人们自主 地使用符合自己性别特点的语言 , 形成了与自己性别相 适应的受文化影响的行为举止和交际方式等性格原型 。 (四 ) 心理因素
除了社会分工 、 社会地位和权势及性别原型会使性 别语言产生差异之外 , 另外一个对此影响比较大的因素 是特殊环境下引发心理变化而产生的性别语言差异 。由 于环境的需要或者环境的刺激 , 人的心理会发生变化 , 这 也会体现在语言表达上 。根据文献 [3]的介绍 , 王德春等 列举了 20多种与男女言语交际有关的性差心理 :女性的 听觉感受比男性敏感 ; 女性的逻辑记忆逊于男性 ; 女性的 机械识记优于男性 ; 男性比女性更重视理解识记 ; 女性比 男性更善于运用形象思维 ; 女性的注意时间比男性强 ; 男 性注意的转移比女性好 ; 男性比女性更容易引起激情 ; 男 性在应急状态下比女性更理智 ; 女性的情感的倾向性 、 深 刻性 、 稳定性优于男性 ; 女性的自觉性 、 果断性 、 坚持性 、 ? 9 4 1?
自制性不及男性 ; 男性的兴趣比女性广泛 ; 男性的性格偏 向于意 志 型 或 理 智 型 、 独 立 型 , 女 性 性 格 倾 向 于 理 智 — — —— 情绪型 、 顺从型 ; 女性的言语能力优于男性 ; 男 性的空间能力优于女性 ; 男性擅长数学推理 , 女性擅长语 言推理 ; 男性的知觉速度劣于女性 ; 男性的支配欲强于女 性 ; 女性的自测能力强于男性 ; 男性的活跃程度高于女 性 ; 女性比男性更易于产生移情作用 ; 女性比男性更易于 接受他人的影响 ; 女性比男性更合群 ; 女性的学习成绩突 出见长 , 而男性的职业成就高于女性 ; 男性的成就动机高 于女性 。 在两性交际中 , 男性经常表现出争强好胜 , 办事 干练果断 , 敢于铤而走险的特征 。而女性则表现出温柔 顺从 、 善解人意 、 友好待人的心理特征 。男女性不同的心 理特征决定了两性语言的差异 。
三 、 、 、 心理定势乃至价值观等方面的差 异 , 从而产生两性之间的交际失误 。只有了解两性之间 的交际规则和交际方略 , 培养对那些非常容易导致交际 失败的交际规则的敏感性 , 才能克服性别文化差异所导 致的交际失误 。 两性之间的交际失误主要表现在以下几 个方面 :
(一 ) 话题选择
男女对谈话题材的选择各有其倾向性 。其中女性偏 好谈论家庭 、 健康 、 子女教养 、 时尚和感情等问题 , 交际时 喜欢交流内心感觉 , 达到和对方交流感情的目的 , 所以女 性的交流的内容往往是感情交流为主 ; 男性则喜欢谈论 政治 、 金钱 、 体育 、 科技等问题 , 交际时较少涉及自我并极 力避免流露自己感情脆弱的一面 , 常以客观的信息交流 为主 。
(二 ) 会话方式
由于社会文化的影响 , 两性在交往方式上各有特色 。 典型的女性群体会话是建立在对方话题基础上的 , 她们 更重视谈话中的合作与协调 , 更注重整体的气氛和谈话 对方的反应 , 女性希望通过谈话交流感情 , 使双方互相理 解 、 同情 , 以此来拉近谈话双方的距离 , 强调和深化与听 话者的人际关系 。 男性总是期望通过言语交际来展示自 己知识 、 能力和社会地位 , 因而倾向于提出建议和解决方 法 。 当谈话被打断时 , 男性比女性更容易感到不满 , 他们 采取反击措施的可能性更大 。由于女性的交往是建立在 相互维护的基础上 , 所以她们对话题的控制欲较低 , 彼此 的合作性更强 。于是 , 女性对打断的宽容和男性对此的 不容忍就可能引发矛盾和冲突 。
(三 ) 理解方式
女性感情丰富 , 表达的自由度也比较大 , 因此她们的 话语带有比较多的情感色彩 , 属于情感型 ; 男性习惯于陈 述事实和资料 , 通常关注言语表达的字面内容 , 属于事实 型 [10]。 这些差别经常会造成男女之间的误解 。此外 , 男
性话语直白 , 女性话语隐含 , 男子很容易根据自己的理解 习惯只看字面的意思 , 而忽视了女性话语的深层含义 , 从 而造成理解上的偏差 。 比如“ I a m s o tired 。 I want t o quit
my j ob ” , 此时女性这样表达自己并不是想真的辞退工作 ,
而是希望得到别人的安慰和理解 。但男性对女性这种抱 怨的理解就是女性在工作中遇到了具体难题 , 想换工作 , 因此他们会去帮助女性解决工作具体问题 。 由于女性没 有直接说出自己的真实意图 , 男性往往很难理解到女性 的真实意思 。 虽然男性为女性提供了男性认为很好的解 决方法 , , 不能理解和 、 忧愁 , 。
, 就好像 []在语言中的反映 。性别差异是一种文化差异 , 跨性别交 流是一种跨文化交流 。 男女两性都有各自的交流规则和 假设 , 在跨性别交际中就会用这些规则和假设来理解对 方 , 这些规则和假设的不同就会产生谈话的不同步和跨 性别交际失误 。 要完整 、 全面地理解性别语言差异 , 就必 须把这些差异放在特定的社会文化环境中 , 从中找出这 些差异的根源以缩小并消除差异 。同时我们应培养性别 文化差异意识以及对容易导致交际失误的交际规则的敏 感性 , 尊重各自的交际规律 , 以便达到有效交际的目的 。
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[3] 王德春 , 孙汝建 , 姚远 . 社会心理语言学 [M].上海 :上海外
语教育出版社 , 1995:213.
[4] 张爱玲 . 论女性语言的特点及其文化内涵 [J ].外国语 ,
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[5] Lakoff, R. Language and Women ’ s Place [M ].Ne w York:
Har per&Row. 1975:31.
[6] Ronald W ardhaugh . An I ntr oducti on t o Soci olinguistics[M].
Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,
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[7] 阮金菊 . 语言运用中的性别差异及其根源 [J ].外语研究 ,
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[8] 饶纪红 . 社会文化因素与话语风格的性别差异 [J ].江西社
会科学 , 2006, (12) :161.
[9] 王凤华 , 贺江平等 . 社会性别文化的历史与未来 [M].北京 :
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〔 责任编辑 :曹金钟 〕
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范文四:跨文化交际中非语言交际的中美差异
文化研究
2008.02(下旬刊)
跨文化交际中非语言交际的中美差异
□
(西安医学院
摘
要
宋元源
陕西?西安
710021)
身势语,如同有声语言一样,在文化中扮演着重要的角色。在不同文化背景下,相同的身势语却会有不同的意思,
同样,不同的身势语也会有相同的含义。在现代社会中,不同文化之间的交流越来越普遍,这就要求我们要掌握一些跨文化交际方面的知识,以便更好的跟他人交流。本文提出学习身势语对跨文化交际的重要性,并以中国和美国之间的文化差异为例,其目的在于让大家更清晰的了解非言语交际在交流中的重要作用以及更好的指导我们与外国人之间的交际。
关键词
跨文化交际非语言交际身势语
文章编号:1672-7894(2008)02-166-02
国妇女普遍有一个共同的抱怨,那就是中国人总是喜欢抚弄她们的孩子,这种行为,不管是触摸、轻拍、拥抱还是亲吻,对这些美国的母亲来说都非常尴尬和不舒服。因为在美国,这些行为意味着粗鲁、冒昧、侵犯。除了触摸这个比较温和的形式之外,我们来谈谈在公共场合下的拥抱。这在许多国家的妇女之间是非常常见的行为。在大多数发达国家,比如所美国,拥抱经常发生在丈夫和妻子以及家庭成员身上。在长时间不见时,他们用拥抱来表示对对方的想念。但男人之间的拥抱却是另一回事了。在美国人之间,一个温暖的拥抱或在脸颊上的亲吻是一种标准的欢迎方式。但在中国,这就很少见了。取而代之的是简单的握手。
(三)目光接触
目光接触在身势语中是很重要的一个方面。我们可以列出许多关于它的规则:看还是不看;什么时候看以及看多长时间;能看谁不能看谁等等。在认识的人之间进行对话时,美国的习俗要求应该有目光接触。这既应用于说话者也适用于听众。不管是哪一方没有看鄙视、不安、内疚、漠不另一方,都会给对方留下这样的印象:害怕、
对于关心。甚至在公众场合下发表观点时,也要有一定的目光接触。那些在演讲时只是读他们的稿子而没有跟听众有所交流的人来说,他们传达了一种不自信、不尊重听众的信息。
当然,在英语国家,如果盯着别人的时间过长也是不合时宜的。即使有时盯着别人看可以表现你对别人的欣赏或热爱,但却会让别人产生不安和尴尬的感觉。许多在中国旅行的美国人觉得当地人对他们的凝视让他们觉得恼火。他们觉得看他们的人很没有礼貌,但他们并没有意识到这种现象其实在中国很常见,只是出于好奇而已。
(四)微笑和大笑
不管是微笑还是大笑通常都表达了友好、赞同、满意、高兴、开心、和欢乐。这点无论在中国还是美国都是真理。然而,在一些情况下中国人的笑会让美国人产生相反的感受。以下的内容摘自一个美国人给他的中国朋友的一封信,信中有一段是在说中国人的某种非语言行为让美国人产生的跨文化误解:
“……OneisthedifferentmeaningoflaughterinChinaandAmeri-
中图分类号:G04一、简单介绍
文献标识码:A
人通过不同的方式进行交际,其中最重要的方式之一当然是通过语言。当语言被记载下来的那一刻,语言就可以完全从它发生的对语境中脱离出来,它可以被看作是一个独立的,自我包含的过程。人类来说,很显然语言是非常重要的部分,但它却不是人类交际的全部。
非语言交际的研究是语言研究的一个有力的补充。通过对非语一些学者发现,语言和非语言交际的研究,人可以更好的了解他人。
言交际,两者是互相依附的。这在大部分的情况下确实是正确的。但是在某些场合下,肢体的行动与所说的相互对立。当这一情况发生时,我们就要去找到进一步的信息,或者通过语境来猜测说话者表达的真正含意。
二、学习非语言交际中身势语的重要性及必要性
尽管我们也许没有意识到,当我们与别人交流时,我们所使用的远远超出了语言本身。通过表达,我们同时也在用肢体来表达我们的感情,比如说微笑或是伸出手来表示欢迎等等。在大家看来,点头意思是“是”,张开手挥舞是在说“再见”,在别人说话或是听讲座是靠在椅背上或是打哈欠表示缺乏兴趣,感觉无聊。但是,在某些文化背景下,以上所提到的身势语却表达了其他的含意。对斯里兰卡人、尼泊尔人、一些印度人、一些爱斯基摩人来说,点头不是“是”而是“不是”。所以为了用外语和别人有效的交际,我们应该知道伴随语言同时产生的姿势、身体运动所表达的意思。
三、身势语在中国和美国的具体种类和应用(一)交流时的安全距离
不同的人对人们在交流时应保持的安全距离有着不同的见解。研究表明,在美国,人们在社会和商业关系中,主要有四种距离:亲密、个人、社会和公共。其中,亲密距离是指45厘米到直接肢体接触之间,产生于关系亲密的人之间,如丈夫和妻子;个人距离指45厘米—80厘米,主要发生于朋友、熟人、亲戚之间;社会距离指1.3米—3米;而那些在一起公事或在社交聚会中谈话的人通常都要保持更远的距离,这就是公共距离,通常情况下在公众发言或教师在教室中都属于公共距离。
还有一点我们要时刻记住,那就是大多数的英语国家都不太喜欢人们靠他们太近。离得太远当然会让人觉得奇怪,但是靠的太近会使人觉得不舒服,除非在一些原因下,比如表达感情或是促进亲密感。
(二)肢体接触
肢体接触的适合程度随着文化背景的改变在变化。在中国,美
can.WhenanAmericanisparkinghisbicycle,forexample,andthebicy-cleaccidentallyfallsover,hefeelsembarrassedathisawkwardness,andisquiteangeredandhumiliatedwhenChineseonlookerslaugh.Ihaveseenthesamethinghappeninthediningroom,whenaforeignerdropsaplatequitebyaccidentandfeelsbadlyandchineseonlookerslaugh,poundinghisdisfortandcausingangerandbadfeeling.”
可以看出,美国人对中国人那种“大笑”的方式感到不舒服,甚
(下转第169页)
166
2008.02
采取的翻译方法必然有所不同。由于主流意识形态的直接或间接干预作用下,翻译中的删改是最典型的例证。一般当出版社或译者选择一个文本进行翻译后,在翻译过程中,译者有可能就将原文与目的语国家的发生主流意识形态冲突的文字删减。当译者完成翻译任务,将译文叫给出版人或委托人后,编辑人员仍有可能根据具体情况进行删改。最后出版管理部门也有可能对译文进行删改甚至干脆禁止流通。译文经过多次删改,可能导致前后矛盾,次序混乱,逻辑不通的情况而影响翻译质量。
随着市场劳动的分工,社会机构都会阻碍个体对自己行为的个人责任感。市场化操作繁荣了翻译市场,却为译者们带来了无形的枷锁。因此,多给译者们发挥创作的自由空间,增加译者的责任感是为当务之急。
三、效应叠加
抄译、假冒的译本通通出炉,现今,利用计算机高科技使剽窃、
简直是易如反掌。而利用专门的翻译软件几天内就能出一本书。译者服从出版社而导致责任感下降;从众效应驱使出版社为追求利益最大化而更加重了问题的后果。因此,在翻译质量下降的问题上,主要责任在于出版社而不是译者。翻译并不是一件容易的工作。过去从海外留学归来的一些人成为了专门的翻译家,现在外语的普及化教育和专门的翻译软件,使翻译成本大副降低,能从事翻译工作的人多了,专业翻译队伍消散,因此翻译的严肃性被忽视了,而市场职业和专业的分化和细化更吸引了优秀的外语人才投身其他行业。对于出版社来说,现在要找个好译者很难,但出版社不去寻找合格的
(下旬刊)
文化研究
译者或者不对译文精益求精,却是在市场化的选择中,选择了承担错误的成本和风险而追求利益的最大化。出版社的责任也就是其内编辑们的原因。编辑们也可以因从众效应为了迎合大众口味改变译文风格,因服从效应而减少自己的责任感,对译文质量把关不严,编辑们对翻译质量的影响不可忽视。
出版社在中国仍是个相对垄断的行业,没有公平的竞争环境,光靠道德批评和自律维护是远远不够的。除了完善翻译出版的制度体系外,放开出版准入,增加市场竞争,塑造品牌效应,利用市场淘汰机制来形成翻译出版的良性循环。
四、结语
面对受利益驱使的译坛歪风,道德批评固然重要,但对于社会动机效应产生的严重后果,更应该提高警觉。翻译动机作为翻译主体因素的一部分,在翻译研究中不能孤立译者个体而忽略了社会环境。本文通过不同的社会表现方式来激发翻译行为的产生,仅仅是初步探讨而已。维持翻译动机的程度和持续时间,有待后来者研究挖掘。
参考文献:
翻译观念与翻译活动[J].外语研究.2004(1).[1]许钧.翻译动机、
[2]H.L.Petri,JohnM.Govern.动机心理学[M].西安:陕西师范大学出版社,2005.[3]许钧.翻译论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2003.12.[4]周仪,罗平.翻译与批评[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.9.
[5]杜悦,徐启建,林定忠整理,劣质译著.我们遭遇另一种学术腐败[N].中
国教育报.2003.3.20.
(上接第166页)至于厌烦。
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
做某事;
意见、(3)拇指向下(手握成拳,拇指伸出指向下方):对建议、个人的反对或一种强烈表达反对的非言语方式;
赞同、鼓励、努力使别人理解自(4)眨眼:表达多种意思:理解、己;
四、中美文化差异中的身势语
在这些身势语中,由于中美的文化差异,使得以下三种类型普遍存在,第一,不同的身势语表达同样的意思;第二,相同的身势语在中美各自的文化中意思差别很大;第三,有些身势语只存在一种文化中,而在别的文化中没有与之对应的内容。
(一)不同的身势语表达同样的意思
2.中国文化中特有的身势语
(1)说话时一只手盖住嘴(多出现于老年人之间),表达信心或秘密;
(2)(当主人添茶时)用一只手或两只手手心向上,放在杯子旁边,并说“谢谢”:表达对主人添茶的感谢;
(3)两只手的食指朝上,并慢慢互相靠拢:表示两人坠入爱河,或表示两人是绝配。
以上的例子只是冰山一角,但却足以证明身势语的多样化,也同时展示出了解一种文化中特定身势语的重要性。
五、结论
身势语的研究是对语言研究的重要补充,不管是研究身势语或
1.“过来”,表达这一意思的时候中国人多会使用这种手势:手掌伸出,手心向下,指头朝着自己的方向来回伸缩。而在美国人们大这对都是手握成拳伸出,手心向上,食指朝着自己的方向来回伸缩。有些中国人来说,是一种不尊重的手势。
2.“我吃饱了”,在中国,人们会把一只或双手张开,慢慢的拍拍肚子表示饱了,而在美国,人们用一只手放在自己的喉咙处,手心向下,同时说一句“已经到这儿了”来表示已经吃饱了,不能再吃了。
(二)相同的身势语在中美各自的文化中意思差别很大(见下列表格)
动作描述跺脚
在中国表达的意思气愤;恼怒;悔恨
在美国表达的意思
不耐烦
权威人士认为,这两者互相是研究语言,都可以深化对两者的理解。
依靠,互为补充。如果我们对身势语知之甚少,那么在跨文化交际的过程中就会带来阻碍。所以,为了在全球化日趋严重的时代,为了同更多的人群进行良好的跨文化交流,我们就要补充一定的非言语交际的知识,提高我们的交际能力和效率。
参考文献:
[1]LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani.CommunicationBe-tweenCutures.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2000
[2]毕继万.跨文化非语言交际.北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999.[3孔玉华.跨文化交际中的非言语交际.河南商业高等专科学校学报.2005(18-3).
观众和听众鼓掌/表演或讲话人也鼓掌
目不转睛地看发“嘘”声
谢谢;互相表示友好
好奇;惊讶反对;责骂;轰赶
为自己鼓掌被认为是
不谦虚
不礼貌;使人尴尬;不自在
要求安静
(三)有些身势语只存在一种文化种,而在别的文化中没有与之对应的内容
1.美国文化中特有的身势语
担忧或无事可做;(1)咬指甲:表示有情绪上的压力、
(2)摇食指(一只手的食指举起,其他手指握紧,举起的食指来回摇晃):警告别人不要做某事或表示别人所做之事有误或不该
169
范文五:语言交际中的性别差异分析_英文_
内蒙古工业大学学报(社会科学版) Journa l of Inner M ongo lia U n i ve rs i ty o f T echno logy
第19卷 第1期
(Socia l Sc i ences)
V o. l 19 N o . 1 2010
Analysis on Gender D ifferences in L inguistic Co mm unicative Styles
Jiang Q i n f ang
(Schoo l of Fo re i gn L anguages o f T ong jiU n i v ers it y , Shangha i 200092)
A bstract :Each person s life is spent i n a ser i es o f conversations and co mm un ica ti ons . Studying and
ana l y zi ng everyday conve rsati ons and the i r effects on m utua l re lati ons have been the focus o fm any li ngu ists and soc i o li ngu ists as the see m i ng ly sense less m isunderstandi ngs often har m our m ut ua l re l a tions . The pri m ary purpose o f th i s paper is no t to dete r m ine wh i ch co mmunicati ve style i s better , m ore acceptab l e , to mo ti vate o t hers to change t he ir sty les co m plete l y , but to recognize and i dentify t he ex isting d iffe rences i n order t o ach i eve a better mutual unde rstanding and adaptation .
K eywords:gender diff e rence ; co mm un ica ti ve sty l e ; g ender l ec t 中图分类号:H 315 文献标识码:A
1. Introduction :
Th is is not an unco mm on pheno m enon for peop le to be at odds w it h part n ers of the ir opposite sexes at ho m e o r i n t h e w ork place just because o f the i g norance of the ir own co mm unicative sty les , wh ich can lead to co mmunicati v e conflicts ,
hurt their fee li n gs ,
and no
ulti m ate l y da m age the ir re lationsh i p . To co mm un icate and i n teract m ore effectively w ith one another , w onder they need a shared understand i n g of each other s m ethods , m anners and sty les o f expression.
The effecti v eness of th is shared understand i n g i s m portan, i t
because it can facilitate the transfer of
i n f o r m ation, e m otions , and ideas .
A language co mm unicates i d eas and , at the sa m e ti m e , establishes relati o nships bet w een the participants of a conversation . I n our dail y lives , ever y thi n g each of us says , regardless of sex , is sa i d i n a certain w ay , in
a certa i n tone o f vo ice , certain cho ice o f wo r ds ,
at a certain speed , w ith a w ith either d irect n ess or
i n d irectness , w ith a certa i n degree of quietness or
loudness . As a resul, t each of us has a certa i n speak i n g pattern .
M en and w o m en are different i n both desi g n and function . Consi d ering the d ifferences , m en and w o m en d iffer i n the w ay t h ey th i n k, fee, l act and tal k . I n the early 1960s , there appeared t h e first pub lications o f research find i n gs on gender differences i n l a nguage , wh ich m ainly concen trated on d ifferences bet w een the w ays m en and wo m en ta l k on a phono l o g ica, l m or pho l o g ica, l syntactic or lex ica l level (Coates ,
[1]
1998). Since then , m any li n gu ists and soc i o li n guists have spentm uch effort on the study o f the i s sue , and recentl y the research of ho w gender is m an ifested is based on conversati o n sty les and ana l y sis . In fac, t one o f the m ost striking d ifferences i n the sexes is the un i q ue ways that m en and w o m en
* 收稿日期:2010-04-19
作者简介:蒋琴芳(1962-), 女, 同济大学外国语学院讲师, 公外部教研室副主任。
co mmunicate .
A s m en and wo m en are better a w are of the differences i n co mmun icati v e sty les , they can stri v e to m pr ove the ir own co mmun icati o n w ith m e m bers of the i
opposite sex .
unfo lded i n the fo ll o w i n g cases .
C ase 1
Let s go out for a w a l k after l u nch . Let s
m ove the sofa upsta irs . H earing t h ese words , m ore o ften , the m an is irritated and cries ou t Don t te llm e what to do ! W hy ? The m an fee ls she is or deri n g h i m around , telli n g hi m what to do . But a w o m an th i n ks tha t she is m ak i n g suggesti o ns , but no t de m ands . Tak i n g a do m i n ant position in the h ierarchical order o f soc i e ty , m en express their de m and to othersw hat to do by say i n g , for exa m ple , L ie down , Listen to m e , and so on
i n a m ore direct w ay .
[4]
2. W hat is G enderlect ?
The ter m genderlect is t h e study o f the different
co mmunicati o n styles of m en and w o m en . It has been co i n ed by the Am erican expert i n app lied psychology , Suzette H aden E lg i n , to de fi n e the language of the sexes . S i m il a r in for m to the wo r d d ialect wh ic h i s t h e un i q ue
language of peop l e
i n
a specific
geog raphical area ,
genderlect is a variety of a
[2]
Psycholog ist
Jacqueline Sach , w ith m any sa m p les o f t h e study ,
states that wo m en s tendency to m ake proposals
usually beg i n sw it h Let s , W e cou l d , wh ile m en very o ften g i v e each other co mm ands . Th is is perhaps the resu lts o f fa m il y infl u ence i n their childhood . Psycho l o g ists and socio linguists have stud i e d ho w parents talk to the ir children and found that fathers i s sue m ore co mm ands to the ir children than m others do , and they issue m ore co mm ands to their sons than to
[5]
the ir daughters .
I n essence , Deborah T annen respected Am erican li n guis, t
[6]
language that is tied no t to geog raphy or to fa m il y background or to a r o le of a person in soc i e ty but to the speaker s gender . In her book entitled Genderspeak, M en , W o m en and the Gentle A re of Verba l Self-Defense , she suggests so m e specific co mmun icati o n techniques to co mbat gender sty le d ifferences . Because of the ob jecti v e ex istence o f genderlect , the Am erican psycholog ist and co mm unication consu ltan, t Judith T i n gley
[3]
(1990), a w ell-
i n vented another ne w ter m ca lled
professor and scho lar
gender-fl e x wh ich reflects te m po rar y adaptation to a different sty le of co mmun icati o n of the other gender i n o r der to i n crease potential for i n fl u ence . G iven the natura l differences in t h e w ay m en and wo m en co mmunicate , she be lieves that te m po rar y adaptation to a different style of co mm un icati o n is necessar y , and the pr i m ar y
goa l
o f
this
ad j u st m ent
is
effective
co mmunicati o n w ith m e m bers of the opposite sex .
argues that boys , g r ow i n g i n to young m en , use talk to
e m phasize status , d isplay their abilities and kno w ledge , and g irls , gro w ing i n to young w o m en , use ta l k to create connections .
C ase 2
E verybody is no t unfa m iliar w ith such scenes i n wh ich a husband and a w ife w ere sitti n g :H e w as reading a ne w spaper and she w as g lari n g at the back o f the paper . She co m pla i n ed Every day all you see is the ne w spaper ! I ll bet you don t kno w even no w I a m here ! W e o ften hear m ore co m plaints fro m w o m en : H e see m s to have ever y thing to say to every one else , but no t h i n g to m e . H e doesn t co mm un i c ate w ith m e . W h ile the husband m ay have no need to d iscuss h is feeli n gs about a specific situati o n , t h e w ife m ay w ant to ta l k it ou. t W hen a husband co m es ho m e , he m ay sit i n the sofa to relax , bu t his w ife m ay w ant to ta l k about the day . Dale Spender
[7]
3. G ender Co mm unication D iffere
-nces
M en and w o m en, different
w ays
and
i n genera, l for
co mm unicate in
purposes .
d ifferen t
Co mm un icati o n is m ore than j u st thro w i n g w ords
around, m ak i n g a po in, t or atte mpti n g to a m use or seduce a po tenti a l partner , it is the exchange of ideas , t h oughts , and e m o tions . M en and wo m en have un i q ue w ays to express the ir t h oughts and fee lings . A t hom e and in the o ffice , in m arriage and i n friendsh i p s , these differences are very apparen. t The differences w ill be
(1980), in h is
w or k M en M ade Language , suggests that m ost
peop le i n sti n ctive l y feel thatwo m en should be seen and no t hear d .
So co m parative ly speaking , w o m en ta l k
m ore t h an m en . Ano ther proo f is that m en often
co m p l a i n about t h e fact that they hearw o m en talking in situations where m en wouldn :t
on the phone ,
in
gat h eri n gsw ith friends or relatives , i n private situati o ns w hen they are at ho m e . The Am erican fil m , D i v orce Am erican S tyle , a lso describes the sa m e case .
Case 3
Opposite to the private scenes i n wh ich m any m en are silent and m any w o m en are ta l k ative , there are m any other occasi o ns on w hich the ro les are reversed . For m en , ho m e is a place where they are free to re m ain silen. t But for w o m en , hom e is a place where t h ey are free to talk . The reverse happens w hen m en and w o m en are at a m eeting or party . M ost m en w ill p ick up report-ta l k or pub lic speak i n g . They ta l k on and on , fro m one sub ject to another , fr o m business to sports w ith wo m en p lay i n g the ro le of aud ience or listeners .
I n such cases m en fee l m ost co m fortab le
talking when there is a need o r it is a ti m e to estab lish and m a i n tai n the ir status i n a group or cro w d . For m ost m en talk is m a i n l y a m eans to preserve i n dependence and m a i n ta i n status i n a h ierarchical soc ial o r der .
Tannen (1990) provides m uch research on the concept o f m isunderstandi n g i n the dual -culture approach. A ccordi n g to her , the language o fw o m en i s pr i m arily rappo rt -talk , i n wh ich estab lish i n g connections and pr o m o ti n g sa m eness are e m phasized . M en , on the other hand , use language descri b ed as report-talk , as a w ay of preserv i n g i n dependence w hile exh i b iting kno w ledge and sk il. l
W o m en are a lso inc li n ed to downp lay rather than disp lay the ir experti s e . A study by H elena Leet -Pellegrini (1980) that f o cused on gender and expertise , set up pairs of wo m en , pairs of m en , and m ixed pa irs , w ith one i n each pair assigned as the expert . She found tha, t on average , the indiv i d ual w it h experti s e talked m ore , but m en experts talked m ore than wo m en experts . She also found t h at the w o m en d i d no t use the ir expertise as po w er , but rather tried to downp lay i. t The m en i n this study , whether declared as experts or no, t w ere m uch m ore incli n ed to atte m pt to do m i n ate the situa ti o n , challenge the other i n dividua, l and fight for contro l and status .
Case 4
Another cartoon setti n g descri b es a conversati o n bet w een a m an and a w o m an w ho kne w that he had j u st been fired . She asked , W hat s up w ith you? H e [8]
rep lied Noth i n g . These cartoons actually high light the d ifference in what m en and wo m en th i n k ta l k is for :to m en , ta l k is for i n for m ation . S i n ce there is
no thing personal I w ant to ta l k abou, t I j u st say Noth i n g w hich m eans I have no infor m ati o n to exchange w it h you. To w o m en, ta l k is for interaction . Say i n g N othing m eans th i n k i n g Noth i n g . Te lling things is a w ay to sho w i n vo l v e m ent and listening is a w ay to sho w i n terest and care .
According to Tannen , w o m en tend to say I m sorr y m ore frequently than m en do , but o ften w hat they m ean is I m sorry that happened , no t I apo l o g ize . W o m en are often si m ply l e nding concer n and e m pat h y to t h e o ther indiv i d ua; l this is a w ay , to establish a connecti o n .
Over the last t w enty years socio li n guists have accumu lated consi d erable ev idence that fe m ales and m ales tend to deve l o p d ifferent patter ns of interaction . There is , for exa m ple , a great dea l o f research de m onstrati n g that wo m en tend to be active listeners , m ak i n g use o f a range o f strateg i e s to ensure that an i n teraction proceeds s m ooth l y , and t h at other partic i p ants
have
opport u nities
to
speak .
By
co m parison , m en are w i d ely reported as be i n g m ore like l y to co m pete for the fl o or , and less like l y to use strateg ies such as supporti v e feedback to si g na l t h e ir i n volve m ent or to encourage others to keep ta l k i n g .
C ase 5
A lady had a lum p re m oved fro m her breas. t Shortly after the operati o n, she told her fe m a le friend how upse t she w as at the m o m ent about the sea m left on her breas. t H er friend responded : I know . W hen I had m y opera ti o n last year , I felt t h e sa m e w ay . But when she to ld the sa m e fee li n g to her husband , he j u st sa i d : You can have plastic surgery to cover up the scar and restore the shape o f your breast . To her great surprise , h is co mm ent upset her m ore because she d i d no t get co m fort fro m h i m . I nstead he asked her to have another surgery , w hich annoyed her . C learl y the lady w as hurt by her husband s reaction to her expressi o n o f painful fee li n gs . U sually i n this situati o n , a w o m an w anted the g ift of co m fort and understanding but not tha t o f adv ice and indifference .
M en and w o m en respond d ifferentl y when hearing so m eone s pr oble m. W o m en tend to respond w ith affi n ity I have a si m ilar proble m. A m an is m ore
li k ely to offer a so l u ti o n in so m e w ay . H e m i g ht say Cheer up , o r it could be wo rse or suggest an action. M en often don t understand that w hen w o m en talk about a proble m, they m ay be m ore co m fortable be i n g m et w ith a ffi n ity than a proposed so l u ti o n .
M any m isi n ter pretations occur due to the different uses of language by each gender . For exa m ple , wo m en often engage in tr oubles talk , i n w hich they m ay state a personal prob le m. They expect to use th i s disclosure to bu il d closeness , and to be responded to w it h state m ents reflecti n g si m ilar experiences . H o w ever ,
a typical m en s m isi n terpretati o n of a
w o m an s state m ent o f a proble m, is that the w o m an i s ask i n g for help , w hen rea ll y she is j u st ta l k i n g to estab lish rappo r. t
Case 6
I a m to l d M ary has j u st got divorced . I sa w Jane dati n g To m yesterday . These w ords are not unfa m ili a r to us , and they are m ore frequently fro m w o m en sm outh . W hen people talk abou t the details of other peop l e s da il y l o ves , it is gossi p . The gossi p is o ften labeled on w o m en , m a i n l y because i n their eyes ,
gossi p serves as a functi o n in estab lish i n g i n ti m acy . It reveals the m eta m essage Since I te ll the secret to you, I regar d you as m y best friend . I a m on i n ti m ate ter m s w ith you . To say t h at m en do not exchange secrets about t h e ir o w n or other people s li v es for the pur pose o f establishi n g inti m acy i s certa i n l y not to say that they don t have a need and w ay to establish friendsh i p w ith others thr ough talk .
A ctua ll y w hen m en m eet or gather together , their source o f i n vo l v e m ent i n the ta l k focuses on ne w s , business , sports and po litics . M en s i n terest in the details o f these aspects is in paralle l to w o m en s i n terest i n the deta ils of personal lives . If w o m en are afraid of be i n g forgo tten by no t kno w i n g w hat i s happen i n g w ith D ick orH arry , then si m ilarly , m en are also afra i d o f being ignored by no t kno w i n g w ha t i s happen i n g i n the w orld .
Case 7
W o m en are o ften fr ustrated because m en do not respond appropriately to the ir troub les by o fferi n g m atching troub les . W e o ften hear such co m p lai n ts fro m w o m en about the un fair treat m ents fro m the ir bosses . W hen a w o m an te lls her feeli n gs to her husband for the first ti m e , he does not o ffer h is co m fort or i n terchange
but instead he w ill say Leave h i m and get a ne w j o b. U sua lly the w o m an w ill stay on the job and t h en co m pla i n to h i m abou t her experiences again and again . Then the m an is annoyed by say i n g W hat s
the po i n t o f ta l k i n g about the m any m ore ? You can t do anyth i n g about the m. This expla i n s why m en are o ften fr ustrated when the ir si n cere atte m pts to help a w o m an so l v e a proble m are o ften m et no tw ith gratit u de but w ith disapprova. l Fo r m ost w o m en , troub le ta l k is a bid for an expression o f understand i n g by rece i v ing the m eta m essage W e are t h e sa m e . You are not alone . Qu ite opposite to their expectati o ns , they often feel distanced by t h e advice fro m m en by sending the m eta m essage W e are not t h e sa m e . Y ou have the prob le m. I have the so l u ti o ns . M utual understanding i s sy mm etrica l but g iv i n g adv ice is asy mm etrica, l and this asy mm etry does not contri b ute to har m ony and co mm un ity .
A fe m a le s speech style is w i d ely described as oriented to w ards o thers and the conversati o n itse lf -a j o i n t production of text and m eaning . A m a le s speech sty le or orien tation is said to be m ore concerned w ith the speaker h i m sel, f and w ith h is o w n con tribution to the conversa ti o n .
O f course , the cases caused by m isunderstandings bet w een m en and wo m en in co mmunicati v e sty les are too num erous to m ention i n d i v i d ua lly . To su m up, the fo ll o w ing help
us
tab le know
clearly m ore
de m onstrates about
the m
t h e m a i n for
better
d ifferences in m ixed sexes co mm unication and w ill understanding .
4. T i ps for I mprove m ent in Gender Co mmunication
Once differences i n gender co mm unicative styles have been iden tifi e d , m en and wo m en bo th can try to clear ou t the m isunderstandings resulted fro m these d ifferences . W hile genderl e ct is no t easy to avo i d , adjust m ents fr o m bo t h m en and w o m en can be m ade to m prove co mmun icati o n and relationsh i p i . D r . Rhonda Ke lley
[9]
(1996), Pro fessor of W o m en s M i n istry ,
Ne w O rleans Baptist Theo log ical Se m inary offers us so m e practical strateg ies for the i m prove m en. t
(1). Evaluate your o w n co mm un icati v e sty le .
L isten to your o wn speech . E va l u ate your cho ice of w ords and your tone of vo ice . Co m pare your sty le w ith t h at of those who m you j u dge to be effective co mmunicators . Se lf-eval u ation is an m i portant first step in i m pr ov i n g gender co mm unication .
(2). U nderstand the co mm un icati v e style o f the opposite sex . M ake obser vati o ns i n their conversati o n by listen i n g to the ir talks . W hat do they say in a certa i n circum stance ? H ow do t h ey say i? t D iscuss t h ese conversati o na l differences at an appropriate ti m e w hen conflict has no t occurred. Then deter m ine if your perceptions are correct or acceptable . T ry to ad j u st t h e m i n order to co mm unicate m o re effective l y w it h the opposite sex .
(3). N ever bla m e others who co mmunicate i n a differentw ay . E ach person has his o w n unique sty le of co mmunicati o n .
In the course o f co mm un ication,
re m e m ber that different conversational sty les are not bad th i n gs . It can add diversity in hu m an co mmunicati o n . Just i d entif y the d ifferences ,
accept
t h e m and ad j u st when needed .
(4). A lter your o w n conversa ti o na l style to fit the
contex. t R e m e m ber that co mm un ication is a lear ned behavior and a behav i o r can be m od ified . E ffecti v e co mm un ication is adapted appr opriately to fit the setti n g . So m e co mm ents are best m ade on ly i n private wh ile others can be shared i n public . So m e state m en ts are appropriate for a group w hile others shou ld be m ade to your best fr i e nd .
(5). N ever take it for gran ted that your m essage i s co m p letely understood by al. l The m essage that is clear to you does not necessarily m ean that it is c lear to the listener . I n fac, t one o f the b i g gest m istakes i n co mm un ication is assum ption .
It is al w ays best to
exp lain t h e m essage thorough l y t h an r un t h e risk o f being m isunderstood.
W hen conversati o n beg i n s to develop into effective co mm unication , t h e path to a lasti n g re l a ti o nshi p has begun . By m aintai n ing open and honest co mmunication , people can deve l o p a greater understandi n g of one a no t h er . This shared understandi n g is a necessity f o r a long-lasti n g frie ndship and har m ony . Act u all y qu ite a part of the quality co mmun i c ati o n is the l e arni n g , adapti n g , adjusti n g and read j u sti n g process .
D ifferences ofM en andW o m en i n L i n gu istic Co mmunicati v e Sty les
M en
seek sta t us and po w er
do repo rt ta l k seek i ndependence ta l k t o so l ve prob l em s troub le ta l k g i ve adv ice
pub lic speak i ng silent at ho m e ta l k f o r infor m ati on competiti ve , agg ressi ve ne w s exchang e ta l k i ng abou t
g i v i ng direct co mm ands
W om en
seek i nti m acy and comm un ity
do rapport talk seek i nterdependence ta l k about t he ir fee li ngs trouble ta l k seek understand i ng
private speak i ng ta l kati ve a t hom e talk for i nteracti on coopera ti ve , supporti v e goss i p ta l k i ng aga i nst using L et s ; W ill you do
5. Concl usion
There rea lly ex ist gender d ifferences in w ays of
speaking , and w e need to iden tify and understand t h e m . Adopting co mm un icative sty les o f the other gender is no t a so l u ti o n , as social expectations l e ad to further m isi n terpretati o n .
Qua lity co mmun icati o n o ften co m es fr o m an open
and honest exchange o f thoughts , ideas , and feeli n gs . E ven w hen there is a difference , m en and w o m en must re m ain open and honest i n the ir respective disclosures . Shari n g v ie w s w ith another sex i s an i n trica te part o f develop i n g a shared understand i n g , w h i c h leads to
easier exchanges .
W ithout such interpretations , w e are doo m ed to bla m e others or even ourselves . Recogn izing gender differences i n co mm unicative styles frees ind i v i d uals fro m the burden of i n d i v idua l patho logy . If w e can do so , w e can take the m i n to accoun, t ad j u st to , and learn fro m each other s sty les .
University Press , 1987. 178-187.
[5]Jean Ber ko G leason. Sex D ifferences i n Paren t-Ch il d I nteraction [C ].London :Ca m bri d ge
University Press , 1987. 189-199Frances Lee Sm ith. Gender and the Fra m i n g of Exegetical Self i n Ser m on Perfor m ances [C ].London :Oxfo r d University , 1993. 146. [6]Tannen , Deborah . Y ou Just Don t Understand :
M en and W o m en in Conversati o n [M ].N e w Y or k:Ba ll a nti n e Books , 1990. 22-50. [7]Da le Spender . M an M ade Language [M ].
London :Routledge and K egan Pau, l 1980. 33-51. [8]
Leet -Pe llegri n , i H e lena .
Conversational Do m i n ance 33(2):223-248.
[9]Rhonda Ke lley . Co mmunicati o n bet w een M en and W o m en i n the Contex t o f the Christian Co mm un ity
[J].Faith and M i s sion , 1996, 14(1):49-56.
Gender and
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[1]Coates , Jennifer . Language and G ender [M].
Oxford [Eng ]:M a l d en , M ass . :1998. 5-25.
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W o m en and the Gentle Are o f V erbal Self-Defense [M].Ne w Yo r k :John W iley &Sons , I nc . , 1993. 15-31.
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语言交际中的性别差异分析
蒋琴芳
(同济大学外国语学院, 上海 200092)
摘要:每个人的生活都离不开一系列的对话和交际。研究和分析日常交际以及它们对相互关系的
影响一直是许多语言学家和社会学家们关注的焦点, 因为那些看起来毫无意义的误解常常会干扰人们之间的关系。本文的宗旨不在于肯定哪一种交际方式更好、更易被人们接受、或者鼓励人们完全改变其交际方式, 而在于认识存在的交际差异以达到更好的相互理解和适应。
关键词:性别差异; 交际方式; 性别语言中图分类号:H 315 文献标识码:A