Barter system(物物交换): Farming communities Context: the environment in which the
traded their surplus produce(盈余产品) in communication takes place and which helps define the exchange for products and services without the communication.
medium of money. Verbal intercultural communication: It happens
Global village(地球村): All the different parts of the when people from different cultural backgrounds world form one community linked together by communicate with each other by using language. electronic communications, especially the Internet. Pragmatic(语用学)s: the study of the effect that
Melting pot(大熔炉): a socio-clanguage has on human perceptions and behavior. ultural assimilation
A cultural assumption(文化假定): A person is (同化,吸收) of people of different backgrounds
and nationalities. assumed to have particular values and attitudes based
Cultural Diversity(文化多样性): the mix of people on their cultural backgrounds.
Semantics(语义学): the study of the meaning of from various backgrounds in the labor force with a
words. full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which
members belong. Denotation(本义): the literal meaning
Connotation(延伸义): extended meanings of Intercultural communication(跨文化交际):
associated meanings and the suggestive meaning communication between people whose cultural
perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to Taboo(禁忌语): some objects, words or actions that alter the communication event. are avoided
Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations Euphemism(委婉语): the act of substituting a mild,
about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the indirect, or vague(模糊的) term
behavior of a relatively large group of people. Chronemics : The study of how people perceive and
usEnculturation(文化习得): all the activities of e time.
learning one’s own culture are called enculturation. Monochronic time: paying attention to and doing Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts only one thing at a time.
the changes brought about by another culture and Polychronic time: being involved with many things
develops an increased similarity between the two at once.
cultures. Proxemics: the perception and use of space.
Ethnocentrism(文化中心主义): the belief that your Kinetics: the study of body language
own cultural background is superior. Paralanguage(副语言): involving sounds but not Communication: to express our thoughts and feelings words and lying between verbal and nonverbal to others and satisfy our emotional and material needs. communication.
Source: the person who sent out the information A planetary culture: integrates eastern mysticism Receiver: the person who attends to the message. with western science and rationalism.
Encoding: the process of putting an idea into a Intercultural person: represents someone whose symbol cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are Decoding: assigning meaning to the symbols received not limited but open to growth beyond the Message: the encoded thought psychological parameters of his or her own culture. Channel(渠道): The term channel is used technically
to refer to the means by which the encoded message is Questions:
1. What are the four trends that lead to the 3) Therefore, Chinese extend to address
people with kinship terms(亲属关系). development of the global village?
4) In English, only a few occupation or titles Convenient transportation systems
Economic globalization are used such as Doctor, Judge, Governor,
Widespread migration Mayor, Professor, Nurse and ranks in the
Innovative communication system armed forces like captain.
2. What are the three aspects where the cultural 9. Who should be introduced first in the West?
differences exist? The senior, the female, and the guest
Verbal differences; non-verbal differences;
differences in values 10. How is Chinese hospitality different from
American hospitality?
3. What are the three ingredients(要素) of culture? In Chinese, the principle of avoiding bringing
Itrouble; in American, in contrast, it’s the host deas; behaving; products
who tries to avoid interfering in guests’
4. How to understand cultural iceberg? freedom of action by learning room for the
guest to make choices. Above the water line: visible, tangible, tip of
the ice bag, easy to change.
Under the water line: invisible, intangible, 11. How would Americans misunderstand the
Chinese responses to the compliments?majority, resistible to change
1) The American woman’s taste in clothing 5. What are the characteristic of culture? was questionable.
Dynamic, shared, learned, ethnocentric. 2) The hostess was not sincere.
fishing 3) The Chinese would be suspected of “
6. What are the characteristic of communication? for compliments”.
Transactional, dynamic, irreversible,
symbolic, systematic and contextual. 12. Why are the Chinese reluctant to(不甘心情愿)
pay a compliment?
7. What are three basic aspects of communication? It would most likely be taken as a kind of
And on what aspect does the success of the flirtation.
intercultural communication greatly depend on? It’s considered very low and mean.
Individual personality, the culture we operate Between a compliment and a positive
in, and the physical environment that subtle(微妙的) form of request.
surrounds us. Circumstances.
13. How is the Chinese different from Americans in 8. How is Chinese addressing different from expressing gratitude?
American addressing? In Chinese: The principle of avoiding bringing
1) In Chinese the surname comes first and is trouble.
followed by the given name, but in English In American: it’s the host who tries to avoid
this order is reversed. interfering in guests’ freedom of action by
2) In recent years, many English-speaking learning room for the guest to make choices.
people tend to address others by their given
name, and in Chinese we tend to address each 14. What are the social functions of compliments?
other with full name. Compliments have a series of social functions:
creating and reinforcing solidarity, greeting punctuality(准时) and promptness(迅速效率).
people, expressing thanks or congratulations,
18. What are the American cultural values like in encouraging people, softening criticism,
starting a conversation, or even overcoming terms of Value Orientation put forward by embarrassment. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?
In the American cultural values, it’s evil but
15. What are the 4 major verbal differences between perfectible(可改善的).
Chinese and English? The relationship to the nature is mastery with 1) A term in one language does not necessarily nature.
hAmerican are future oriented. ave a counterpart(极相似的人或物) in the
other language. Doing leads to external achievements. 2) Words or terms in both languages appear to Individual: self is more important than group. refer to the same object or concept only on the
surface, but actually refer to quite different 19. What are the Chinese cultural values like in things. terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by 3) Things or concepts are represented by one Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?
or perhaps two terms in one language, but by In the Chinese cultural values, it’s good but
many more terms in the other language, i.e. corruptible.
finer distinctions exist in the other language. The relationship with nature is harmony with 4) Terms have more or less the same primary nature.
meaning, but have secondary or additional Chinese are past oriented.
meanings that may differ considerably from Being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual each other. good of inner harmony and peace.
Group: in cultures with group values, people
make decision with consensus. 16. How is the Chinese writing style different from
the American style?
20. Identify the features of each of four Hofstede’s On the contrary, British thought pattern tends
cultural dimensions to do the case analysis. to be more abstract. English native speakers
express their thoughts with facts concerning Individual vs. collectivism
the main topic. When they express certain Low power distance vs. high power distance ideas and concepts, they usually illustrate the Uncertainty avoidance vs. stability concrete argument one step after another at Masculinity vs. femininity
distinct levels, and the argument are gradually High context culture vs. low context culture unfolded with logic.
21. Identify the contrast between high-context and
17. What are the different features of M-time and low-context culture and then use it to interpret P-time? the differences between American and Japanese P-time practiced by most other peoples is less or Chinese negotiating style?
rigid and clock-bound. People from P-time Prevail
cultures schedule several activities at the same 1. Individual vs. collectivism:
time, and time for them is more flexible and I: freedom to control their own destiny,
self-reliance to stand on their feet, privacy more human-centered(人际关系). M-time
to mind their own business, family ties tend cultures place great emphasis on schedules.
The two striking features of M-time are to be relatively unimportant.
We: harmony to strive for the common good, Kill two birds with one stone. 一箭双雕
Haste makes waste. 欲速则不达 competition isn’t encouraged, limit rights to
Where there’s smoke there’s fire. 无风不起浪 property, inter-dependant.
2. Equality vs. hierarchy(平等、层次等级) The grass is always greener on the other side
A:inequality should be minimized, equal of the fence. 这山望着那山高
opportunity to success, self actualization, Beauty is only skin deep. 美貌是肤浅的
treat equally, superiors are to be blamed, Spare the rod and spoil the child. 玉不琢不成
器 innovation(革新,创新).
B: social hierarchy is prevailing, person are Give a person a dose of his own medicine. 以
其人之道还治其人之身。 not equal, each one has his own position and
act accordingly, comfortable with unequal Frank’s advice is like good herbal medicine:
distribution of power, humility (show hard to take, but ultimately beneficial.
良药苦口利于病,忠言逆耳利于行。 respect) by self-disparaging, obedience.
Neither adjust you shoe in a melon patch; nor 3. Stability vs. risk-taking
A: avoid uncertainty, stability provided, your hat under a plum tree. 瓜田不纳履,李下
不整冠 formulate detailed rules, not tolerate deviant
Even the dog swaggers when its master wins ideas, liable to anxiety and stress.
favor. 一人得道鸡犬升天 B: tolerate the unusual, dislike rules, prize
initiative, less tense and more relaxed. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. 越是不
见越想念
Let sleeping dogs lie. 莫惹是非 4. Masculinity vs. femininity
M: stress assertiveness, competition and You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. 年逾花
甲不堪教 material success.
F: stress quality of life, interpersonal You can’t have your cake and eat it too. 鱼与
熊掌不可兼得 relationships and concern for the weak.
It takes two to make a quarrel. 一个巴掌拍不
响 22. How is gender different from sex?
Sex: biological, permanent, with an individual A miss is as good as a mile. 失之毫厘差以千
里。 property.
Gender: socially-constructed, varied over time Gilding the lily./Icing on the cake. 锦上添花 and across cultures, with a social and Life begins at forty. 人到四十,正如出山虎。 relational quality. Justice has long arms. 天网恢恢疏而不漏。
Diamond cut diamond. 棋逢对手
23. What has influenced the gender socialization? Golden saying 金玉良言
Family communication particularly between Fat office 肥缺
mothers and children; recreational interaction Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a
among children. lion. 宁为鸡首无为牛尾。
Drink a fish 牛饮
谚语:
Tread upon eggs 如履薄冰 A new broom sweeps clean. 新官上任三把火
Many hands make light work. 人多好办事
Don’t put off until tomorrow what you can do today. 今日事今日毕
1. 染火枫林,琼壶歌月,长歌倚楼。
岁岁年年,花前月下,一尊芳酒。水落
红莲,唯闻玉磬,但此情依旧。
2. 玉竹曾记凤凰游,人不见,水空
流。
3. 他微笑着,在岁月的流失中毁掉
自己。
4. 还能不动声色饮茶,踏碎这一
场,盛世烟花。
5. 红尘嚣 浮华一世转瞬空。
6. 我不是我 你转身一走苏州里的
不是我 。
7. 几段唏嘘几世悲欢 可笑我命由
我不由天。
8. 经流年 梦回曲水边 看烟花绽
出月圆。
9. 人生在世,恍若白驹过膝,忽然
而已。然,我长活一世,却能记住你说
的每一话。
10. 雾散,梦醒,我终于看见真实,
那是千帆过尽的沉寂。
11. 纸张有些破旧,有些模糊。可
每一笔勾勒,每一抹痕迹,似乎都记载
着跨越千年万载的思念。
下面是诗情画意的句子欣赏,12. 生生的两端,我们彼此站成了
岸 。
13. 缘聚缘散缘如水,背负万丈尘不需要的朋友可以编辑删除!!
寰,只为一句,等待下一次相逢。
14. 握住苍老,禁锢了时空,一下谢谢!!!!!
子到了地老天荒
15. 人永远看不破的镜花水月,不
过我指间烟云 世间千年,如我一瞬。
16. 相逢一醉是前缘,风雨散,飘29. 渺渺时空,茫茫人海,与君相遇,然何处。 莫失莫忘。
17. 虚幻大千两茫茫,一邂逅,终30. 如果换我先开口,日子是否还难忘。相逢主人留一笑,不相识,又何一样细水长流
妨。 31. 也许是前世的姻 也许是来生
18. 天下风云出我辈,一入江湖岁的缘 错在今生相见 徒增一段无果的恩月催;皇图霸业谈笑间,不胜人生一场醉。 怨
19. 得即高歌失即休,多愁多恨亦32. 人道海水深,不抵相思半。海悠悠,今朝有酒今朝醉,明日愁来明日水尚有涯,相思渺无畔。 愁。 33. 醉眼看别人成双作对,
20. 直道相思了无益,未妨惆怅是34. 无人处暗弹相思泪。 清狂。 35. 终于为那一身江南烟雨覆了天
21. 看那天地日月,恒静无言;青山下,容华谢后,不过一场,山河永寂。 长河,世代绵延;就像在我心中,你从未36. 千秋功名,一世葬你,玲珑社离去,也从未改变。 稷,可笑却无君王命。
22. 就这样吧,从此山水不相逢。 37. 凤凰台上凤凰游,负约而去,
23. 人天自两空,何相忘,何笑何一夜苦等,从此江南江北,万里哀哭。 惊人。 38. 嗟叹红颜泪、英雄殁,人世苦
24. 既不回头,何必不忘。 既然无多。山河永寂、怎堪欢颜。 缘,何须誓言。 今日种种,似水无痕。 39. 风华是一指流砂,苍老是一段明夕何夕,君已陌路。 年华。
25. 有缘相遇,无缘相聚,天涯海角,40. 夜雨染成天水碧。有些人不需但愿相忆。有幸相知,无幸相守,苍海明月,要姿态,也能成就一场惊鸿。 天长地久。 41. 你要记得,紫檀未灭,我亦未
26. 相见得恨晚,相爱的太慢,进去。
退让我两难。缘过了远分,缘过了聚散,42. 谁在岁月里长长叹息。 是否回头就能够上岸 43. 汉霄苍茫,牵住繁华哀伤,弯
27. 天凉了,凉尽了天荒 地老了,人眉间,命中注定,成为过往。 间的沧桑,爱哭了,这么难舍 心都空了,44. 红尘初妆,山河无疆。 最初的想放不能放。天亮了,照亮了泪光 泪干面庞,碾碎梦魇无常,命格无双。 了,枕边地彷徨 45. 江南风骨,天水成碧,天教心
28. 心微动奈何情己远.物也非,人愿与身违。
也非,事事非,往日不可追 46. 山河拱手,为君一笑 。
47. 如是颠簸生世亦无悔。
48. 荏苒岁月覆盖的过往,白驹过4. 生活的苦涩和美好给了我对人隙,匆匆的铸成一抹哀伤。 生的领悟,如今,千山万水走遍,我发
49. 那被岁月覆盖的花开,一切白现自己再也不愿离开文学的蓝天,再也驹过隙成为空白。 不愿离开那个让我痴迷的文学舞台。
50. 褪尽风华,我依然在彼岸守护5. 在烟雨红尘中,轻拾季节花瓣飘你。 落的音符,组成美妙曲符,然后,倚在
51. 那些繁华哀伤终成过往, 时光的路口,撷一缕明媚,许自己一份
52. 请不要失望,平凡是为了最美唯美的怀想,与快乐、浪漫相约,闲淡的荡气回肠。 清欢。
53. 你的路途,从此不见我的苍老。 6. 未经历坎坷泥泞的艰难,哪能知
54. 长歌当哭,为那些无法兑现的道阳光大道的可贵;未经历风雪交加的诺言,为生命中最深的爱恋,终散作云黑夜,哪能体会风和日丽的可爱;未经历烟。 挫折和磨难的考验,怎能体会到胜利和
55. 随你走在天际,看繁花满地。 成功的喜悦。挫折,想说恨你不容易
56. 我自是年少,韶华倾负。 7. 燕子斜飞人家,炊烟零乱,柳絮
57. 你要记得,那年那月,垂柳紫飘飘,弥漫了山里人家。 陌洛城东。 8. 这样知解自己的生命即使是心
58. 苍茫大地一剑尽挽破,何处繁灵空荡我也无所畏惧
9. 中秋之曰不可能岁月明如水,偶
然的暗淡,恰似镜子的背后之面,有所
缺憾,人生才会是积翠如云的空濛山色。 华笙歌落。
10. 在经受了失败和挫折后,我学59. 寄君一曲,不问曲终人聚散。
会了坚韧;在遭受到误解和委屈时,我学60. 谁将烟焚散,散了纵横的牵绊;
会了宽容;在经历了失落和离别后,我懂听弦断,断那三千痴缠。61. 清风湿润,
得了珍惜。 茶烟轻扬。重温旧梦,故人已去。
11. 曾经盛开的蔷薇,虽经风吹雨1. 水滴虽小,却可以折射出太阳的
打,但和着微风,还有屡屡暗香飘过。 光彩。
12. 我只希望,不管三年,五年,2. 梦落三千尺愁深似海,繁华遗落
或是十年以后。某一天,我们相遇,还散满地。记忆轮回里,我举杯,在奈何
能相认,你大喊一声,我想死你了。那桥上满口饮尽。
一刻,我定会泪流满面。我们是朋友,3. 人生没有轮回,就像花,人活一
永远的朋友。
世,花开一季、人生如花,花似梦。 13. 最爱的未必适合在一起,相爱
是让彼此做自己。
14. 时间断想,时间不断。流逝,25. 人生就像穿着一件长满虱子的像是水,可弯可直,像是风,可柔可刚。 华丽睡袍,外表美丽,而内心却充满了
15. 如果说人生是一望无际的大干啊和恐慌。
海,那么挫折则是一个骤然翻起的浪花。26. 必须用另一种真实方式来代替如果说人生是湛蓝的天空,那么失意则时光里已经逝去的东西 是一朵飘浮的淡淡的白云。 27. 岁月,依一抹浅香于心间,看
16. 云层雾气,缠着几户古木人家,年华向晚,闻花香送暖。给时光一个浅清新自然,如诗如画。 浅的回眸;给自己一份微笑从容。沉淀,
17. 我喜欢你,只是一个现在;我爱馨香;念起,温暖。
你,却是一整个未来。 28. 人生的起起落落间,总会有一
18. 夜雨染成天水碧。有些人不需些情怀需要安静回味;总会有一些伤痛要姿态,也能成就一场惊鸿。 需要独自体会;总会有一段路需要一个
19. 再大的风不会永不停息,在浓人走;总会有一些事需要坦然面对。 得雾不会经久不散,风息雾散仍是阳光29. 疏影横斜水清浅,暗香浮动月灿烂。 黄昏。
20. 牵着时光的衣襟,走进芳菲五30. 心若没有栖息的地方,到哪里月,轻轻地将春光拥入怀中,于一抹素都是在流浪。
白流韵中,弹奏一曲江南的婉韵,把盏,31. 今后,我会从尘世中的纷争走将似水流年浅斟轻酌。 出,远离喧嚣,把岁月打磨成诗,让自
21. 我穿越轮回而来,在奈何桥相己的文字静如睡莲,动如涟漪,无论何思盈袖,凄然守候。莫落泪,纵若水落时都能描绘成美丽的水墨丹青。 三千尺东流,云动八万里西散,我依旧32. 全是理智的心,恰如一柄全是会化身城碟,翩翩起舞跨过奈何桥与你锋刃的刀,它叫使用它的人手上流血。相会。 ——泰戈尔
22. 如果我爱你,我就会理解你,33. 我们都不擅长表达,以至于我通过你的眼睛去看世界。我能理解你,们习惯了揣测。去肯定,去否定,反反是因为我能在你身上看到我自己,在我复复,后来我们就变得敏感而脆弱。 身上也看到了你。 34. 心心念念的往事、曾经深爱过
23. 似乎风在转向,送走了缓缓袭的人、年少琐碎的过往,它们就像缠绕来的味道,又将刚刚溜走的风,静静地之间的一阵风,来的缱绻,去的时候让换回来。 人来不及挽留。
24. 生活告诉我,童话只不过是小35. 如果在乎的没有那么多,想要孩子幻想的游戏。 的没有那么多,生活便会简单得很多。
36. 在极度的喧嚣中,独自微笑独翘首滑落最后的伤痕!雨尽含羞,淡抹嫣自平静是憾,落花是美的,淡淡的书香,红!
淡淡的花香,淡淡的馨香。 47. 无影击碎了泪水,岁月在那个
37. 曾芬芳过的那片土地,幸福的光年划下的痕迹原来是一刀一刀地刻在花儿虽早已凋谢,只留下风雨吹打的痕了我的心上。
迹。 48. 我收拢了梦想的翅膀,我停却
38. 辗转半世红尘,缘去缘灭,空了信念的脚步,却再也作不回曾经的那留满池伤痕。雨花迟落,霜雪纷飞,池一天。
水泛冰,已益处月的苍凉。 49. 我宁愿用尽此生,为那些尘世
39. 一条古道,一匹瘦马,一个人的硝烟尘雾,潸然泪下,为菩提落花,影,被落日的余晖缓缓拉长。 为世间繁华。
40. 我们人生的大幕才刚刚拉启:50. 阳光依旧在,我们穿越光影,刀光剑影,英雄本色;是非恩怨,儿女情沿着历史的足迹继续前行,创造美好生常。 活,走向美丽明天!
41. 我们要去流浪,虔诚地定格住51. 洋溢着春日的微笑,坚强了外每一寸记忆;我们要去成长,潇洒地忘却表,却虚伪了内心,脆弱了,是不敢触掉每一条纹路。 及的。
42. 嗅着昨日芬芳遗留的气息,寻52. 也许,就在那一刻里,梦境还寻觅觅,仍不见踪迹。邂逅了一场烟火,在,柔情亦在。
终还是那般凄凉。迷失的夜晚,点缀了53. 一个人的戏,自己独自导演,无数颗孤单的星星,不知道那是否有属诠释精彩。在剧中尽情释放着自己的喜于我的一颗。 怒哀乐。笑得凄然绝美;哭得肝肠寸断。
43. 像这样轻飘飘的日子和平平静54. 但生命中被你刻上痕迹的那些静的心情,也算是生活中的一种享受吧。 岁月无法抹去。
44. 想着远方的你,绝美的笑容,55. 往事悠然一笑间,不必空忧。只为你一个人展露,那一泓羞涩的笑容,我们一路走来,只是为了告别往事,走悄悄。 入下一段风景。倘若让忧伤填补了生命
45. 细碎的声音,如羞涩的蓓蕾,的空白,就真的是亵渎了生命。 夜暮花影,轻浅六月,寂寂流年,拢一56. 人生只有回不去的过去,没有阙清绝,归隐在宋词里。 过不去的当下。上帝只会给你过得去的
46. 夕阳沉落在海水深处却不见浪坎,再不好过的生活,再难过的坎,咬花翻滚,淡淡的只留下一个让人沉思的咬牙,也就过去了。 背影。落雨是晚风中的殇,带着晨曦的
57. 我一直以为山是水的故事,云69. 天空飘过一朵云,有时是晴,是风的故事,你是我的故事。可是却不有时是阴。但白昼终归还是白昼。 知道,我是不是你的故事。 70. 我知道回不去,但还是会想念
58. 生命并不是一场竞赛,而是一会回忆会心疼到无法自拔。 段旅程。如果你在途中一直都试图给他71. 天空不曾留下鸟的痕迹,但是人留下深刻印象,超过别人,那你就浪我已飞过、在大地上画满窗子,让所有费了这段旅程。 习惯黑暗的眼睛都习惯光明。
59. 比如新的朋友新的感情新的思72. 人生首先要是望远镜,看远;再绪我想要知道的 就是显微镜,看细;接下来是放大镜,看
60. 我以为我已经将爱情忘记,将透;其次是太阳镜,看淡;最后是哈哈镜,你忘记。可是有一天,我听到一首歌,笑看生活。
我的眼泪就出来了。因为这首歌,我们73. 我不是公主,也不会有等待救曾一起听过。 赎我的王子。
61. 忍花开花落,云卷云舒,品人
生似棋。
62. 我离开你这一种信仰又会以怎
样全新的姿势去面临更深沉的挑战
63. 人生路,路迢迢,谁道自古英
雄多寂寥,若一朝,看透了,一身清风
挣多少。
64. 只有夕阳站在那里。灵魂像无
数的雪花飘过,光明闪烁,渐渐清醒。
65. 终于为那一身江南烟雨覆了天
下,容华谢后,不过一场,山河永寂。
66. 荏苒岁月覆盖的过往,白驹过
隙,匆匆的铸成一抹哀伤。
67. 忘川水不枯,记忆不散;奈何桥
不断,思卿不弃;今夕,彼岸花又放,佳
期约又到,我轮回践约而来,等你归来。
红尘路上,伊人在否?
68. 十年生死两茫茫,不思量,自
难忘,千里孤坟,无处话凄凉,纵使相
逢应不识,尘满面,鬓如霜。
跨文化交际期末论文
白色在中西方文化中的差异
英语123班 吕媛 201210010325
颜色是指通过眼、脑和我们的生活经验所产生的一种对光的视觉效应。正是因为有了各种各样的颜色,我们的世界才会变得五彩斑斓,才会有春天里开始发芽的嫩绿的新叶,夏天里高挂天空的火红的太阳,秋日里等待收割的金黄的水稻,冬日里装扮世界的银白的飘雪。不同时代,不同背景的人对颜色的理解存在着各种差异,这也较多地体现在人类的语言中。颜色词作为语言的一部分,有其丰富的文化内涵,始终与文化发展同步进行。
一方面,由于中西方之间存在着文化差异,各个颜色词的象征意义也有所不同;另一方面,由于文化之间存在着沟通交流,有些颜色词的象征意义也有其共通之处。本文将具体说明白色在中西方文化中的差异。
在中国文化中,白色是一个禁忌词。中国文化的颜色象征,建立在中国早期的政治、文化和教育状况的基础上,因此,颜色的象征意义有一定的政治化和神秘化倾向。在古代,我们的祖先观察到“月到中秋分外明”,因此将中秋之月的“银白色”与肃杀的秋季连在一起,于是,白色在中国文化里就成了一种颜色禁忌。在中国传统文化中,白色常与死亡、丧事相关联,如人们常说的“红白喜事”的“白”便代表着丧事。自古以来亲人死后家属要披麻戴孝(穿白色孝服)办“白事”,要设白色灵堂,出殡时要打白幡;旧时还把白虎视为凶神,所以称带给男人厄运的女人为“白虎星”。“白”在中国封建社会里是平民之色,古代老百姓称为“白衣”,后称“布衣”,没有功名的人称为“白丁”、“白身”。“白”在中国古代还意味着贫贱和卑劣,还象征着奸邪和阴险,如在京剧中有“唱白脸”。它也象征失败、愚蠢、无利可得,如在战争中失败的一方总是打着“白旗” 表示投降,称智力低下的人为"白痴",把出力而得不到好处或没有效果叫做 "白忙"、"白费力"、"白干"等。
白色在西方人眼里是权力和地位的象征。例如,“the White House”指白宫,美国政府;“Whitehall”指白厅,英国政府;“white collar”指白领阶层,脑力工作者,表明在社会上有地位。白色在英语中还可以是经济色彩的颜色词,表达不同的意思。例如:“white war”指没有硝烟的战争,常指“经济竞争”;“White goods”指大型家电用具,如冰箱,洗衣机之类,因其外壳常制成白色;“White money” 银币;“white sale ”大减价;“the white way”灯光灿烂的商业区。白色在西方文化中还有洁白无瑕,清清白白的含义。白色被认为是纯洁、美丽的象征,所以白色是西方文化的崇尚色,是结婚时新娘的主色调。在婚礼上,新娘通常佩戴白花、穿白色的婚纱、戴白手套等,代表着爱情的纯洁和婚姻的贞洁。
颜色在不同文化里的象征意义,都是随着社会发展和历史沉淀而约定俗成的,是一种永久性的文化现象。运用得当,它能使我们的语言更加生动有趣;若不了解它在不同文化中所代表的具体意义就很有可能在运用时闹出笑话。所以我们应了解各个颜色词在具体语境下的象征意义,以免在文化交流中产生不必要的误会。
跨文化交际期末论文
外国语学院2013级
硕士研究生课程论文
学年、学期
院 部
专 业
课程名称
姓 名
学 号
任 课 教 师
成 绩 2013/2014学年第一学期 外 国 语 学 院 外国语言学及应用语言学 跨文化交际学 许 霞 132080012 方 小 勇
Barriers and Solutions
----A Closer Look at Intercultural Communication
Abstract
As the development of intercultural communication, many scholars discuss or approach intercultural communication from verbal, nonverbal and other perspectives which all make great contribution to intercultural communication. This paper intends to examine the barriers to intercultural communication. In the intercultural communication and cooperation, cultural conflicts often occur. Although the difference between different cultures is no substantial, it is found at all levels: thinking mode, value orientation, communication norms pragmatic transfer and prejudice. Better understanding those factors that affect the intercultural communication can help to diminish communicative obstacles. Besides, the paper also explores some solutions of improving intercultural communication and overcoming the barriers. With these solutions, there will be more understanding and harmony between people from different cultures in the world.
Key words: barriers; thinking mode; value orientation; communication norms; pragmatic transfer; prejudice; solutions
交际障碍与应对策略
--跨文化交际的一次近观
摘要
随着跨文化交际的不断发展,许多学者从言语,肢体言语和其他方面讨论或研究措施,以便跨文化交际活动能够更有效地进行。本文拟就跨文化交际中存在的障碍进行讨论。在跨文化交际与合作中,文化冲突在所难免。尽管不同文化之间的差异不是物质存在的,它可以被发现在所有层面:思维模式,价值取向,交际规范,语用转移和偏见等。交际障碍能否减少取决于人们能否更好地了解影响跨文化交际的因素。另外,本文还将探讨一些提高跨文化交际能力及克服其中障碍的方法。有了这些方法,来自世界不同文化背景的人们之间就能有更多的理解与和谐。
关键字:障碍;思维模式;价值取向;交际规范;语用转移;偏见;方法
Contents
Abstract (English) ................................................................................... I Abstract (Chinese) ................................................................................. II Contents ................................................................................................. III
Ⅰ Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
Ⅱ Barriers to Intercultural Communication ...................................... 1
2.1Thinking Mode.............................................................................. 2
2.2 Value Orientation ......................................................................... 3
2.3 Communication Norms ................................................................ 4
2.4 Pragmatic Transfer ....................................................................... 4
2.5 Prejudice ...................................................................................... 5
2.5.1 Definition of Prejudice ........................................................ 5
2.5.2 Expressions of Prejudice ..................................................... 6
2.5.3 Functions of Prejudice ......................................................... 7
Ⅲ Solutions of Improving Intercultural Communication .................. 9
3.1 Enough knowledge ....................................................................... 9
3.2 Skilled Actions ........................................................................... 10
Ⅳ Conclusion ...................................................................................... 10
Bibliography ......................................................................................... 12
Barriers and Solutions
----A Closer Look at Intercultural Communication
Ⅰ Introduction
Since the adoption of the opening up and reform policy, China has increased its foreign exchanges. Nowadays, the developments of the economic globalization and information networking advance this kind of exchanges. However, people find that misunderstandings and even conflicts often occur in this kind of cooperations and exchanges. In fact, most of them are caused by cultural differences. China and other countries have different social cultures, and as a consequence, people have different modes of thinking and behavioral patterns. Socio-cultural differences in China and other countries are mainly in terms of geography, philosophy, religion, political system, economic system, methods of education, concepts of values, customs and life styles. These differences are an objective reality and are within the scope of cross-cultural communication. Only through overcoming these differences can we achieve a successful intercultural communication. This paper intends to examine the barriers to intercultural communication and explore some solutions of improving intercultural communication and overcoming the barriers.
Ⅱ Barriers to Intercultural Communication
Whenever we communicate with others, we all hope that the communication is a fulfilling and effective interaction. But, we often meet some obstacles unavoidably. So, we should know some barriers, which will impair our competence and effective communication. Here,
this paper will focus on the thinking mode, value orientation, pragmatic transfer and communication norms.
2.1Thinking Mode
People of different cultures have different cognitive models to the outside world which leads to the differences in thinking modes, especially between the east and west. The characteristics of western thinking mode are logic and analysis, while eastern mode is based on intuition. It is also the feature of the Chinese traditional cultural thinking mode. People, living in this kind of culture, pay special attention to the intuition, with an obvious generality and vagueness. With the lapse of time, the mindset is formed. Mindset can be interpreted as recognition and simplify the process of the classification of the external perception. Of course, some stereotype is correct, while others are wrong, which may directly affect intercultural communication, resulting in communication errors. In intercultural communication, people?s predictions of the behavior of the others in such a mindset are based on their own culture.
This kind of mistake will not only happen on the average people, even famous people like leaders also cannot avoid. By the end of 1949, when MAO Zedong wanted to explain his different view on the issue of the modern Chinese revolution to Stalin during his visit to the Soviet Union, Stalin always changed the topic. Later, when Stalin?s men visited Mao, he lost his temper ad said some bad word, which made them feel puzzled. Actually, in China, people think the attitude of treating a subordinate officer is the attitude towards the officials. MAO zedong's intention was that they would tell Stalin So that Stalin could make an appointment with him. But in the Soviet Union, people's cognition mode is very different. In their view, the reason that subordinates of a senior official are scorned is that they do poor work. If they tell their supervisor
about that, they will be severely reprimanded. Because of the differences in mindsets, Mao?s efforts became meaningless.
2.2 Value Orientation
People learned communication skills in the process of socialization, and this kind of communicative competence and values are inevitably associated together. Every culture has its unique value system. The system is to inform people what is good and what is evil; what is beautiful and what is ugly; what is to be commended and what should be suppressed. This value becomes a cultural philosophy, moral standard and code of conduct for people. Every culture has different judgment standards. But within its own cultural system, it has its rationality of existence. It must not be understood as a standard of value advanced, while another behind. In Chinese culture, people advocate modest and polite. "Adaptable" and "contentment" are seen as a pursuit of the realm. Temperate, kind, courteous, restrained and magnanimous are regarded as firm beliefs. But competitive, self expression and personal highlight are met cold eyes, and even treated unfairly. The pursuit of personal development is seen as a serious individualism. And individualism in the collective orientation dominated Chinese culture, is bound to be condemned for. In western culture, " taking all things calmly " is seen as an expression of the lack of entrepreneurial spirit, is synonymous with laziness and incompetence. Individualism is the core of its values. This culture advocates independent thinking and judgment, encourages people to rely on their ability to achieve their personal interests. Individualism means not only the pursuit of personal material interests, but also the pursuit of differences. In Oriental culture, especially in China, North Korea South Korea and other countries, in addition to guard home, dogs can be eaten. Words used in the Chinese culture, "dog" is a derogatory
word, such as “狗仗人势” “狗尾续貂” “狗头军师” “狗血喷头”. But in Western culture, the dog is seen as man's best friend.
2.3 Communication Norms
Because the interpretation of the same communicative acts, endowed justice and judgment are based on different norms of social behavior, people of different cultural backgrounds often misunderstand each other. Communication norm is a very important process of communication. From the communication point of view, it can be said that a communication norm is a proper communication mode. Identifying intercultural communication norms and comparing the different social norms are two important factors intercultural communications. It should be noted that, in a culture a certain behavior is normative, but in another culture may be banned. In the conduct system, the taboo system is a very important part. Taboo refers to a violation of the social expectations, including words and actions. The contents of taboos vary depending on nations. In Western culture, hosts must dress neatly to receive guests, but it s not so important in Chinese culture. Overall, this phenomenon arises between a strong multi-cultural communication environment and a weak communication environmental culture. The so-called strong communicative environment culture has more taboo rules and high implicit information. But the weak communicative environment is opposite. Generally speaking, the Eastern countries, like China, Japan and Islamic countries, have a strong cultural communicative environment. But European and American countries generally have a weak cultural communicative environment. Communicating from weak to strong environmental culture, people tend to feel a lot of constraints.
2.4 Pragmatic Transfer
In intercultural communication, people often explain and evaluate culture phenomenon, things and other people's behavior with the criteria of their own cultures. The communication barriers have been caused by pragmatic transfer are not rare. The use of language varies from culture to culture. Standards of a culture in itself can only be interpreted in accordance with specific conditions. The underlying causes of communication failure are that people lack sensitivity to socio-linguistic differences and they will unconsciously use pragmatic transfer.
2.5 Prejudice
It is the personal attitude towards intercultural communication. Attitudes are psychological states that predispose us to act in certain ways when we come across social events or objects in our environment. Among all the formed attitudes, prejudice is one of the most influential and effective ones.
2.5.1 Definition of Prejudice
Prejudice is a rigid attitude that is based on group member and predisposes an individual to feel, think, or act in a negative way toward another person or group of persons. (Bradford ?J? Hall 198). It is a presupposition to either act, think, or feel in a negative way, it is not always obvious to those who are the target of the prejudice or to those observing from a distance that prejudice is being expressed.
Prejudice is based on categorization and the desire to control others in ways that demean them directly or indirectly. This definition of prejudice also recognizes that not all negative interactions involving people of various groups are an expression of prejudice. It is difficult with some outward actions to determine whether they are expressions of prejudice. In particular circumstances, a person may say something rude
to his or her good friend.
2.5.2 Expressions of Prejudice
Prejudice is expressed in a variety of ways ---at times subtle and on other occasions overt. Five of those expressions were discussed by Allport. (Samovar. 247). Knowing how prejudices manifested will help you identify your own prejudices and in so doing will improve the manner in which you perceive, approach, and interact with other people. Antilocution or Verbal Abuse
This level of prejudice involves talking about a member of the target group in negative and stereotypic terms. For example, Chinese people are called “Chink”, Polish are called “Pollack”, Japanese “Jap”, Irish “Mick”, Black people “Negros” or “Coon”. Between 1990 and 1991, during the war between America and Iraq, Arab Americans were called “sandsucker”, “towelhead”, “sand negro”, “camel jockey” and “raghead” by some Americans. Besides, American white people prone to say "Dead Indians are good Indians” to humiliate the natives in America ever before. The fact that American Indians were nearly killed out by white people represents the dark side resulting from prejudice.
Avoid
People also show their prejudice when avoid contact with the disliked group. It is not only psychological avoidance, resulting from the differences of language systems, religious beliefs, and behaviors, excluding from certain kind of people, but also avoid contact in behaviors. For example, it is an inconceivable thing if you let Irish Catholics and Protestants work and have dinner together. These two religious groups, because of the different religious beliefs, have the feud for centuries. So, there are tragic things when they meet each other. In history, there were many examples of how one nation or group of people refused to attend an
important peace conference.
Discrimination
From verbal abuse to avoid, if prejudice developed, it becomes discrimination. Discrimination refers to treat other groups of people unfairly in behavior, including job opportunities, residential housing, political rights, educational opportunities, churches, hospitals and other type of social institution. There are three kinds of discrimination: ethnic discrimination, institutional discrimination, and total discrimination. Ethnic discrimination means that certain people undertake to exclude other members of the ethnic groups because of the ethnocentrism. Institutional discrimination refers to the rights of ethnic groups or individuals are deprived because of the limitation of social custom and the law. Total discrimination means the unfair treatment in the field of education and employment.
Physical Attack
The next level of expression is physical attacks. It often accelerates in hostility and intensity if it is left unchecked. For example, we can see the Ku Klux Klan?s atrocity to black people. In Germany, the neo -Nazi attacks the immigration. We also can see the burning churches, many of them in Black communities. From these we can conclude that physical attacks occur when minorities are the target of prejudiced activity.
2.5.3 Functions of Prejudice
A good way to understand the nature of prejudice is to examine its functions or uses. Prejudice serves at least four functions.
Utilitarian
The first function is the utilitarian or adjustment function. We should adjust to the complex world. If holding certain prejudiced attitudes helps them to adjust, then they will maintain those attitudes.
One reason that people hold prejudice is that it is rewarded in tangible and monetary ways. If jobs are scarce, prejudice may be a way to reduce competition for those jobs and, consequently, the valued resources they entail.
Ego-Defensive
This function is to protect people?s views of themselves. If some individuals want to think of themselves as good businesspeople even though they are not particularly successful, they may view those in another and more successful group as cheaters or schemers. This attitude protects the individuals? self-image and does not necessitate examination of their reasons for failure in the business world. Also, it protects a positive view of one?s in -group. People learn to value highly the viewpoints put forth by their in-group, and it is easier to reject out-groups than it is to admit that they may have their own worthwhile standards and points of view.
Value-Expressive
It is to project or demonstrate the individual?s self-image. For example, if people believe themselves to be standing up for the one true God through their religious attitudes, then other groups must be incorrect in some way. If one?s in-group has attained creature comforts through the use of valued high technology, then one may see out -group members who have no knowledge of this technology as backward. The value-expressive function of prejudice can complement the ego-defensive function. The former projects or shows an image to the world, whereas the latter protects that image through attitudes that shift the blame for difficulties to others.
Easy knowledge
The knowledge function of prejudice involves the way information is learned and organized. Some prejudiced attitudes serve to provide
knowledge about the world as seen by the in-group, such as the knowledge that certain out-group members are not desirable business parents or romantic companions. Such attitudes help people make decisions when faced with choices in the business world or in their personal lives. An important point for understanding prejudiced attitudes is that the acquisition of knowledge requires time and energy. Given this investment, people have a natural tendency to see others who have not acquired the same knowledge as undereducated or ignorant. Another important point is that, when interacting in other cultures, at least in one international context, sojourners will almost always be placed in the category of out-group members, although often the exact reasons may be unclear. The reasons for such placement will differ from culture to culture, and many of these reasons will be unfamiliar and thus strange to sojourners. If sojourners make an effort to understand the reasons, they may be able to behave in ways that will minimize the negative consequences of their out-group placement.
Ⅲ Solutions of Improving Intercultural Communication
Now we know that there are many barriers impairing intercultural communication. When confront these obstacles, what should we do? How to deal with them? This is an important thing. We should take knowledge, motivation and action into consideration.
3.1 Enough knowledge
First, people should know their own cultures, which can help them to understand another culture very well. Only by knowing our own way of thinking and behaviors can we notice the differences among cultures and can we choose appropriate interpretations to communicate.
Second, here, the knowledge refers to culture-general knowledge
and culture-specific information. The culture -general knowledge can give us insights into the intercultural communication process and sense of cultural practices. The culture-specific information is helpful in reaching the objective in a specific culture. Different patterns, components of intercultural communication and ways in one culture are all belong to the culture -general knowledge. When we know more about the kind of knowledge, we can do with intercultural communication more easily. Besides, what we should know also include culture-specific information. Knowledge of the uniqueness of predominant culture or particular customs in a country will enhance our intercultural interactions. It is important to grasp some culture-specific knowledge when we communicate with people with a specific custom.
3.2 Skilled Actions
Even though people have enough knowledge and suitable motivation, if lack of behavioral skills, we may fail to conduct an intercultural communication as we anticipate. So, appropriate and effective behavioral skills are necessary in the practice of intercultural communication. These skills include skills in explaining ourselves and our world clearly, skills in regulating conversations and skills in showing our understanding to others. Many students of English may think that they can communicate with English speakers successfully as they have good command of English, get some knowledge of the culture and positive motivation. But, eventually, they fail in successful intercultural communication because of the lack of necessary skills. So, we can see how important the skills are. Fortunately, all these skills can be acquired in our daily life.
Ⅳ Conclusion
As a subject covering a broad range of disciplines, intercultural
communication is now arousing more and more public attention. So, when people communicate with others from other cultures, unavoidably, they will meet some barriers. But the rate of progress varies in different cultural areas. There is a difference, and the difference itself is always changing. It is these differences that hinder their effective intercultural communications. In other words, there are potential obstacles where there are intercultural communications. In order to minimize the misunderstandings, people must know the cause of the potential barriers and find out the feasible countermeasures to overcome these barriers. Each region has its own customs due to the differences in living standards, developing seeds and civilization degrees. People develop different characters because of these different customs. When these differences occur together, we should know how to balance them.
Only when these barriers are overcome, the language can serve us efficiently. Therefore, they can improve their communication capacity with foreign languages despite many barriers in the communication.
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跨文化交际期末论文
中美家庭教育之间存在差异中国的家庭教育方式为家长主导决定型,美国则为民主型。
中美家庭教育之间存在怎样的差异?
第一, 美国家庭教育中注重培养个人的独立性、自信心。在美国父母非常注重从小培养孩子独立、自信、富于探索等个人的品格。如让未满一周岁的孩子晚上离开父母独自睡在自己的房间里,无论其夜晚怎样啼哭,只要不是生病、饥饿等方面的原因,往往听之任之,不予理睬, 并认为这样有利于从小培养孩子的独立和自信。而反观中国家庭对子女可以说是百般呵护, 尤其是现代中国家庭大多数都是独生子女,除了有父母照顾外,还有外公、外婆、爷爷、奶奶等帮忙照看。孩子从小就在大人的全方位照顾中长大,养成了凡事都要依靠父母的习惯。在美国家庭,父母尽量让孩子们参加力所能及的家务活,但跟中国的家庭教育观念完全不同,中国那叫“吃苦”, 反映的是儒家文化的旧观念,认为从从事体力劳动的都是“吃苦受累”的人所做的事情,怕小孩累着。而美国呢,多数家庭在孩子们劳动后犒劳他们, 通过这种方式让孩子从小知道世上从来没有免费的午餐,要有钱支付生活的开支,就要自己动手去劳动,哪怕是微薄的收入,只要是自己劳动挣来的就是好样的。孩子们通过实践,知道了家里的钱都是爸妈劳动挣来的,懂得了付出才有回报。换句话说呢,美国家庭要孩们参加劳动,那不是“吃苦”教育,而是培养孩子们的自信心和独立精神。
第二, 美国家庭注重培养个人的冒险和探索精神。美国孩子遇事积极、乐观、好奇心强,敢尝试、能吃苦、肯动脑筋,而中国的孩子则存在遇事等待观望,下定不了决心,对事物缺乏兴趣,不肯动脑筋的现象,什么原因呢?原因在于不同的家庭教育方式:首先,美国人对孩子的鼓励多于保护。父母经常鼓励孩子做各种尝试,在做中学,做中练,不怕失败,培养孩子的能力和兴趣,最重要的是培养孩子的冒险精神,但这种冒险不是盲目的。而作为中国的家长对孩子则是过分的保护, 造成孩子对父母的高度依赖,使孩子怀疑或失去对自我价值和能力的正确评价, 遇到问题要等父母来解决。家长怕孩子受伤、受欺,很多事情或活动家长认为危险、脏等就让不让孩子玩。其次, 美国人对孩子的引导多于灌输。“我觉得…… 会好些? 我的建议是……, 你愿意听听我的看法吗?”等等这是美国家长对孩子说话的方式。“你还小,听妈妈的。告诉你这不能这样做怎么不听? 错了吧? 你看不听老人言,吃亏在眼前!”等等。这是中国家长常对孩子们说的话。引导会启
发孩子的思考,在思考的基础上再做出自己的判断,结果可能对也可能错,这就是成长的过程。灌输对孩子来讲只需要被动接受,单纯的告诉孩子哪些能做,哪些不能做,只会束缚孩子的探索求知的能力。
第三,美国家庭注重培养个人的自由、开放、民主的思想。在美国家庭中,家长对孩子的态度比较宽松。孩子大多比较活泼, 在父母面前可以畅所欲言的发表自己的见解。所讲有独到之处,父母还予以必要的赞赏。孩子大多在自己的房间里可以随意想象,进行创造性的活动。而在中国的家庭,父母从小教导孩子要听父母、长辈的话, 长辈说话孩子们不能随意插话, 而且父母在谈论某件事情时,已预先告诉孩子是对或是错的,因此孩子只能被动听从父母、长辈的叮嘱安排,等级观念从小就渗入到孩子们的心灵中
如何看待这些差异?
从以上中美家庭教育方式看,是不是美国的父母不关心,不爱护自己的小孩呢? 事实并非如此,父母对孩子都有着一种与生俱来的爱, 这是中国与美国的父母所共
同的。不同的是中美家庭文化中的父母观:在我国无庸质疑是孩子是属于父母的, 就像家中的其他东西一样是父母的私有财产,孩子一切都得听父母的。在美国,子女是独立的个体,他们属于自己,他们有自己的喜好、选择,父母对待子女是对待平等的独立的个体。所以不同的家庭教育方式必然形成不同的家庭文化。虽然文中所列举的仅仅是家庭教育方式中的某些方面, 也许带有一定的片面性, 但在一定的程度上对于了解中美两国的家庭文化有着重要的作用, 而且两种不同的家庭文化对社会经济发展促进所产生的作用是不同的。我们毋论哪种家庭文化更具有先进性,仅从对社会发展进步的作用来看,美国的家庭文化在某些方面是具有其优越性的。我们的国家当前大力提倡科学创新, 独立自主搞科研不能不说和我国的家庭教育造成的影响没有一点关系。
跨文化交际期末复习
跨文化交际期末复习
Unit1
Term interpretation
Economic globalization 经济全球化
The integration of national economics of national economics into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of the technology.
Barter System 物物交换
Farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money
Global Village地球村
All the different parts of the world from one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet.
Melting pot大熔炉
To assimilate the cultures of different backgrounds
Cultural Diversity文化多样性
Countries have been mixed instead of assimilate
Brief Answer
1.What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village?
1)convenient transportation systems
2)Innovative communication systems
3)Economic globalization
4)widespread migration
2.What are the three aspects where the cultural differences exist?(选择 )
1) verbal difference; language, thought patterns
2) Non-verbal communication ; body-language, time concept, spacious language, paralanguage…
3) values ; world views, beliefs, attitudes…
Unit 1 后半
Term interpretation
Culture
Culture can be seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture
Enculturation 文化习得
The process of learning one’s own culture
Acculturation 文化适应
Adapt the cultures learning by the other cultures
Ps :文化习得,文化适应需要对比
Ethnocentrism 文化中心主义
Think your culture is superior to the others
Brief Answer
What are the three ingreduents of culture?
Products, behaviors, and ideas.
How to understand cultural iceberg?
Culture like an iceberg can be divided into two parts: culture above the waterline and culture below the waterline. Culture above the waterline is explicit, visible, tangible , easy to change with time, a tip of the iceberg. Culture below the waterline is implicit, invisible, intangible, hard to change with time, the majority
What are the characteristic of culture?
Culture is dynamic, shared, learned, ethnocentric(文化中心主义 )
Unit 2
Term interpretation
Source 发出信息的人
Person who send out information
Encoding 编码
The process of putting your thoughts into symbols
Message
Encoded thoughts
Channel 渠道
The way the message is delivered
Decoding 解码
Assign a meaning to the words
Receiver
Person who attends to the information
Context 内容
The physical environment that surround us
Brief Answer
What are the three characteristics of communication?(简答 /选择) Communication is transactional (互换性) , dynamic, irreversible, symbolic, systematic and contextual.
What are the three basic aspects to communication? And on which aspect does the success of
interpretation communication greatly depend on?
Our individual personality , the culture we operate in, the physical environment that surrounds us.
Depend on the culture we operate in.
Unit2后半
Term interpretation
Verbal Intercultural Communication非言语行为
People from different cultural backgrounds communicate with other people through language
Pragmatics 语言学
The study of the effect that language has on human perceptions(感知) and behavior
Short answer question
1. How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing? In Chinese, the surname is put before the given name.
In American, vice versa, the name order.
In recent years, many English -speaking people tend to address others by their given names, even when meeting for the first time. But in Chinese, we tend to address each other with the full name.
Another common Chinese form of address is the use of a person’s title office, or profession
Therefore, one can conclude that the Chinese customs of addressing members with the kinship terms(亲戚关系 ) even not related by blood or marriage
2. Who should be introduced first in the west?
The senior, the female, the guest
3. How is Chinese hospitality different from American hospitality? A: In China, a guest usually observes the principle of avoiding bringing trouble to the host.
In American,in contrast, it is the host who tries to avoid interfering in guests’
freedom of action by leaving room for the guests to make choices.
B: The Chinese host usually goes to trouble to make sure there is something left after the meal; the “wastefulness” of this practice has been criticized in American, and some advocate ordering more sensible quantities.
PS: 1.appropriate topics i .e Jim Smith— Uncle Jim
2. response to complaint
3. make apology
Unit3
Term interpretation
A cultural assumption 文化定式
A cultural assumption Is when we assume that a person has particular values and attitudes based on their cultural backgrounds.
Brief Answer
How would Americans misunderstand the Chinese responses to the compliments?
1.In the first case, the implication was that the praisor had poor judgement
2.The praisor was not sincere
3.The Chinese would be suspected of “fishing for compliments”
Why are the Chinese reluctant to pay a compliment?
1.The same compliment was given by a Chinese man to a Chinese woman, the compliment can be.taken as a kind of flirtation(调戏)
2..People are cautious about drawing a line between compliment and flattery.
3.A positive subtle form of request.
(重要) How is the Chinese different from Americans in expressing gratitude?
1. Chinese people don't usually say
2.Traditional Chinese customs don't require people to express thanks for the small favors
The Americans would thank you all the way for very small and most ordinary things.
Unit4
Term interpretation
Semantics 语意学
The study of the meaning of words
Denotation 本义
The literal (字面意义 ) meaning or definition of a word-the explict, particular, defined meaning
Connotation 延伸义
Extended meaning of associated meanings, the suggestive (隐含) meaning. Taboo 禁忌语
Some words, objects or actions that you should avoid in a certain culture. Euphemism 委婉语
The act of substituting a mild , indirect or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive
Brief Answer
What are the 4 major verbal differences between Chinese and English ? 1.A term in one language doesn’t necessarily have a counterpart(对等的人事物 ) in the other language.
2.Words or terms in both languages appear to refer to the same object or concept only on the surface, but actually refer to quite different things
3.Things or concepts are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by many more terms in the other language, for example, finer distinctions in the other language
4.Terms have more or less the same primary meaning, but have secondary or additional meanings that may differ considerably from each other.
PS :make some examples for the differences
The thought patterns of people around the world
The United States were more linear and direct
The Semitic individuals solved problems using a combination of tangential and semi-direct approaches,
Romance is circuitous(迂回 ) approach
Russians employed a combination of indirect and circuitous approaches Unit5(选择为主 )
Term interpretation
Chroxemics 时间学
Mono chronic time = M-time 单时性文化
Emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness(efficiency)and punctuality. It features one event at a time.
Polychronic time = P-time 多时性文化
practiced by most other peoples is less rigid and clock-bound. People from P-time cultures schedule several activities at the same time ,and time for them is more flexible and more human-centered
Proxemics 空间学
the perception and use of space
Kinesics 身势学
more than just hand or arm gestures ;it refers to any little movement of any part of the body
Paralanguage 副语言
language lies between verbal and nonverbal communication. It involves sounds but not words ,it means the set of nonphonemic properties of speech ,such as speaking tempo(节奏 ) ,vocal pitch(音高) and intonational contours (语音语调)
Brief Answer
Where are the different features of M-time and P-time ?
M-time :means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time. Emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness(efficiency)and punctuality. It features one event at a time.
P-time: practiced by most other peoples is less rigid and clock-bound. People from P-time cultures schedule several activities at the same time ,and time for them is more flexible and more human-centered
PS: 1.touch/nontouch culture& long/short body distance
i.e Arab — touch/short
USA — nontouch/medium
2.seat — China: facing the door is distinguished
USA: acrossing the corner
Unit6
Brief Answer
What is the difference between sex and gender?
书 P120表 6.1
Sex(生理性别 ) :biological(生理的 ),permanent and with an individual property
Gender(社会性别 ) :socially-constructed, varied over time and across cultures and with a social and relational quality
In all, gender and sex are not synonymous.
What are the two primary influences on the socialization?
1. .family communication, particularly between mother and children
2. recreational interaction among children
Unit7(以案例分析为主 )
Brief Answer
Identify the contrast between high-context and low-context culture and then use it to interpret the difference between American and Japanese or Chinese negotiating style?
1.Negotiation atmosphere:
American : efficient, professionalism(职业精神) and compromise(妥协, 让步 ) Japanese: socializing, trust
Chinese: socialization
2.Detail
American: the facts, written agreements or contrast
Japanese: fewer specific issues and less detail oriented, brief written agreements
Chinese: general written agreements
3.Communication style
American: more interested in logical arguments than in the people they are dealing with dislike silence
Japanese: encourage covert, fragmented
Chinese: avoid openly confront conflict
4. Cultural variations in selecting negotiators:
American: technical expertise :younger negotiators are common; women are included; having full authority to make decisions
Japanese:(Chinese): Status, knowledge, age, seniority
5. Problem-solving Process
American:universal problem solvers; rational thinking and concrete data, utilize a factual inductive style of persuasion
Japanese: consensus-building
Chinese: high level authorities
6. Organizational Structure
American:task-related stage is the most important; negotiating outcomes
depend on events at the negotiation table
Japanese : pre-negotiation is slowly and cautiously; mediator is used
Chinese: concession only comes at the end
Unit9
Brief Answer
What contrasting world views can be drawn from Buddhism and Christianity?
1.Chiristans sees each one was born with sins and therefore we should salvage ourselves(自我拯救 ). The salvation of the individual is achieved through hard work and piety.
Christianity recognizes the importance of work and free ownership of property.
2.Buddhists believes that there is a supreme and wonderful truth that the universes runs based on a dynamic balance.
They don’t attach themselves to the impermanent objects and the pursuit of material well-being. Thus, little support is accorded to free enterprise..
(重要 ) What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluekhohn and Strodthbeck? 1.Human nature(人生 ) is evil but perfectible (American)
Good but corruptible (Chinese)
2.Relation to the nature
Human beings can/should master/conquer with nature (American)
Live harmoniously with nature (Chinese)
3.Sense of time
Americans are future oriented.
Chinese are past oriented.
4.Attitudes toward work and human activity
As to Americans , doing leads to external/achievements
Chinese, being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual good of inner harmony and peace.
5.Social relationship
American: Self is more important than group (individualism)
Chinese: In cultures with group values, people make decisions by consemsus (重要 ) Identify the features of each of four Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and apply it in the case study
辨别 +分析 +结合案例
1.individualism VS collectivism (个人 /集体主义 )
2.low power distance VS high power distance(远 /近权力距离 )
3.masculinity VS femulinity (男性 /女性文化 )
4.low uncertainty avoidance VS high uncertainty avoidance (不确定性 )
5.high context culture VS low context culture
考试题型
1.T/F Exercise A Unit1-9原题
2.Choice (单选 ) Exercise E 1/3会变 1/3 Unit5 细节题
Smile — friendness (USA) — sharow (Korea)
The land of smile— Thailand
1/3 从简答题演变
3.Term matching (术语匹配 ) 26选 10
4. 英译中 预言,习语 Unit1-4 Exercise C P74-76(见下 )
1. 新官上任三把火。
A new broom sweeps clean.
2. 人多好办事。
Many hands make light work
3. 今日事,今日毕。
Don’t put off until tomorrow what you can do today
4. 一箭双雕。
Kill two birds with one stone.
5. 欲速则不达。
Haste makes waste.
6. 无风不起浪。
Wher e there’s smoke, there’s fire.
7. 这山望着那山高。
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
8. 美貌是肤浅的
Beauty is only skin deep.
9. 玉不琢不成器。
Spare the rod and spoil the child.
10. 以其人之道还治其人之身。
Give a person a dose of his own medicine.
11. 良药苦口利于病,忠言逆耳利于行。
Frank’s advice is like good herbal medicine: hard to take but ultimately beneficial.
12. 瓜田不纳履,李下不整冠
Neither adjust your shoe in a melon patch; nor your hat under a plum tree. 13. 一人得道,鸡犬升天
Even the dog swaggers when his master wins favor.
14. 越是不见越想念
Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
15. 一天一苹果,医生远离我。
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
16. 莫惹是非。
Let sleeping dogs lie.
17. 年逾花甲不堪教。
You can’t teach old dog new tricks.
18. 鱼与熊掌不可兼得
You can’t have your cake and eat it too.
19. 一个巴掌拍不响。
It takes two to make a quarrel.
20. 锦上添花。
Gilding the lily.
21. 喜出望外 /晴天霹雳(褒义 /贬义)
A bolt from the blue.
5. 简答 +案例分析(详见 Unit9)