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范文一：欧洲地图英文版 2013最新版
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手机地图主要的是把你从路上引到目的地，还是不够的，手机地图在O2O的服务方面可以作为一个总的入口，作为一个集大成的App，让亿万的用户都可以打开手机地图可以找到线下的O2O的服务，手机地图是可以做到这点的，因为今天是互联网的年会，我们是非常典型的从移动互联网，App端一口气做到互联网的，从互联网服务方面我们App从零到1亿(两年时间)，我们今天也在做线上的PC端，但是这不是主流，我们认为移动互联网给新的企业，打破传统的垄断，提供了非常好的入口，因为在手机和PC之间在大的迁移，手机互
联网是一个新大陆，不是说简单的PC上，而是说如何用好智能手机，把这个市场做出来。 我们过去是利用手机的各种特点，把手机力图里面各种传感器，做好路况和出行的一系列服务，做到人人都喜欢。我们说手机地图，大家可以想的地图就是简单的纸地图，这远远不够，地图可以变成活地图，活地图意味着原来的传统的静态数据，整合上，动态实时变化的和生活服务的方方面面的信息都整合进来，尤其是日常生活的方方面面都可以整合进来。 图形要素 是地图根据制图的要求所表达的内容。包括注记、地学基础。 数学要素 用来确定地学要素的空间相关位置，起着地图内容“骨架”的要素。 辅助要素 说明地图编制状况及为方便地图应用所必须提供的内容。 补充说明 以地图、统计图表、剖面图、照片、文字等形式，对主题图在内容与形式上的补充。可根据
地图就是依据一定的数学法则，使用制图语需要配置在主要图面的适当位置。
言，通过制图综合，在一定的载体上，表达地球(或其他天体)上各种事物的空间分布、联系及时间中的发展变化状态的图形。随着科技的进步，地图的概念是不断的发展变化，如将地图看成是“反映自然和社会现象的形象、富豪模型”，地图是“空间信息的载体”、“空间信息的传递通道”等。传统地图的载体多为纸张，随着科技的发展出现了电子地图等。 欧洲地图英文版地图全图 欧洲地图英文版地图电子版 欧洲地图英文版地图高清版 欧洲地图英文版地图查询 欧洲地图英文版2012最新地图 copyright南通人才网 世界地图 世界地图中文版 世界地图全图高清版 世界地图电子版
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范文二：欧洲专利介绍(英文版)
PATENTS
The European patent
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INTRDODUCTION
The Convention on the grant of European patents, hereinafter named the European Patent Convention or EPC, was signed in Munich on October 5, 1973.
This Convention entered into force on October 7, 1977 for 7 States and is now effective in 28 States.
The main purpose of the Convention is to give applicants the opportunity to obtain protection in several European countries by filing a single application covering the Contracting States designated in the application and by taking advantage of only one examination procedure.
The European countries which may be designated as Contracting States in a European patent application are now as follows:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Switzerland/Liechtenstein, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Estonia, Spain, Finland, France, United Kingdom, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Slovenia, Slovakia and Turkey
Furthermore, the extension of the European patent to ALBANIA, CROATIA, LITHUANIA, LATVIA and MACEDONIA may also be requested upon payment of an appropriate extension fee for each of these five countries.
The term of a European patent is twenty years as from the filing date. Renewal fees should be paid to the European Patent Office in respect of European patent applications. The first renewal fee is due in respect of the third year, calculated from the filing date, and renewal fees should be paid for each subsequent year up to the year in which mention of the grant of the European patent is published.
Thereafter, renewal fees must be paid for each designated Contracting State and Extension State, in which the European patent has effect.
I – PATENTABILITY REQUIREMENTS
Inventions which are not excluded as such from patentability, which are susceptible of industrial application, which are new and which involve an inventive step are patentable according to the European Patent Convention.
a) Non-Patentable Inventions
Article 52(2) of the EPC lists various types of non-patentable subject matters, including methods of doing business models and computer programs. Non-patentability of business models has been confirmed by various Appeal Boards Decisions if they are claimed as such. Regarding computer programs, patentability is currently admitted if they have a technical effect beyond the mere interaction between software and computer hardware. However, scope of protection of computer programs may be altered in the future since a draft European Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions is being discussed.
Also, pursuant to Article 53 b), granting of European Patents is refused for “plant varieties or animal breeds as well as for essentially biological processes for obtaining plants or animals, this provision not being applicable to microbiological processes or to the products obtained with these processes”.
b) Industrial application
An invention which can be made or used in any kind of industry, including agriculture, is considered as susceptible of industrial application.
It should be noted that, according to Article 52(4) of the EPC, methods for treating humans or animals through surgery or therapy and diagnostic methods are not considered as inventions susceptible of industrial application. However, products for use in any of these methods are not excluded from patentability by this provision.
Nevertheless, it is important to mention that, following the well-known decision of the
Enlarged Board of Appeal: EISAI decision [second medical use, EISAI /Dec 5, 1984-Official Journal EPO 3 (1985)], it is possible to obtain European patent protection, not for a
therapeutic method of use, but for the use of a known substance for the manufacture of a drug useful for the treatment of a specific disease, provided that this treatment is new and non obvious.
According to established case law, cosmetic treatments are not included under Article 52(4) and would therefore normally be deemed patentable. However, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between therapeutical treatment and cosmetic treatment.
c) Novelty
According to Article 54 of the EPC, an invention is considered to be novel if it does not form part of the stat of the art.
The state of the art comprises everything made available to the public anywhere in the world by means of a written or oral description, by use or by any other means, prior to the filing of the European patent application or the priority date, if a priority date is claimed.
Furthermore, the contents of prior European patent applications as filed, having a filing date prior to the filing date of the European patent application in question (or its priority date, if any) and which were published on or after the filing date (or priority date) of said application, are also deemed to be part of the state of the art.
However, this is true only insofar as the Contracting States designated in the European patent application are the same as those designated in the prior European patent application.
It may be pointed out that novelty is interpreted restrictively by European Examiners and generally, in the field of chemistry, a specific compound is not considered as anticipated by a compound family.
d) Inventive step
According to Article 56 of the EPC, an invention shall be considered as involving an
inventive step if, having regard to the state of the art, it is not obvious to a person skilled in the art.
The state of the art with respect to the inventive step does not include the contents of prior European patent applications filed before but published on or after the filing date (or priority date) of the application considered.
Following some decisions of the Boards of Appeal, evaluation of the inventive step is
generally made according to the “problem-solution” approach as follows:
- What is the closest prior art?
- What is the problem to be solved?
- Has the problem actually been solved?
- Is the solution obvious or not with respect to the prior art?
II – FILING OF THE EUROPEAN PATENT APPLICATION
a) Where to file?
The filing of the European application may be made either at the European Patent Office in Munich, at its branch at The Hague, or at the national patent offices of the Contracting States, if the laws thereof allow for such filing, for example, in France, United-Kingdom, Italy…
It should be noted that European patent applications filed at a national patent office, in any one of the official languages of the EPO, will have the same effect as if they were filed in the EPO on the same date.
b) The language
European patent applications must be filed in one of the official languages of the EPO, which are English, French or German.
However, applicants having their residence or principal place of business in a Contracting State having as official language a language other than one of the three official languages of the EPO, or nationals of that State residing abroad, may file a European patent application in the official language of their State. In such case, a translation into an official language of the EPO should be filed within a prescribed time limit.
c) The application documents
The European patent application should contain the following:
- a request for the grant of a European patent;
- a disclosure of the invention and, optionally, drawings;
- one or more claims;
- an abstract;
- payment of the appropriate fees.
d) The priority
The priority of a previous application may be claimed. For this purpose, a declaration of priority, a copy of the priority document and a translation thereof into one of the official languages of the EPO should be filed.
Upon filing a European patent application under priority, the date and State of the previous
application should be indicated.
The reference number of this previous application and an official copy thereof must be submitted within sixteen months from the priority date.
However, following the decision of the President of the European Patent Office of December 22, 1998, which entered into force on January 1, 1999, submission of an official copy of the previous application is no longer necessary if the previous application is:
- a European patent application;
- a Japanese patent or utility model application,
- a PCT application filed at the EPO or at the Japanese Patent Office as Receiving Offices.
As from July 1, 2002, the time limit for providing a translation of the priority document is set individually for each application by a communication in this respect from the EPO, but at the latest within the term under Rule 51(4) EPC. In Practice, the EPO Examiner will request the translation(s) of the priority document(s) if this is necessary for assessing patentability of the EP application on the account of interfering applications.
The filing of such a translation is not necessary when the European patent application is a literal translation of one single previous priority application, but in that case a declaration stating that the European patent application is a complete translation of the previous application, should be submitted.
e) Designation of the Contracting States
The Contracting States in which the applicant wishes to obtain protection should be
designated in the request for the grant of a European patent. A designation fee should be paid for each Contracting State within six months from publication of the European search report.
As from July 1, 1999, designation fees have been deemed paid for all Contracting States upon payment of seven times the amount of the designation fee.
The designation of a Contracting State may be withdrawn at any time up until the grant of a European patent, but it is not possible to designate further Contracting States after the deadline for payment of the designation fees.
Designation of Extension States is also possible. Although not being EPC Contracting States, Extension States allow granted European Patents to take effect in their territory, subject to translation requirements. An extension fee is to be paid for each desired Extension State. A list of the current Contracting States and Extension States is given in annex 1.
f) The disclosure of the invention and the claims
According to Article 83 of the EPC, the European patent application must disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by a person skilled in the art.
On the other hand, Article 84 of the EPC states that “the claims shall define the matter for which protection is sought. They shall be clear and concise and be supported by the description”.
In this respect it should be noted that the European Patent Convention provides particular rules relating to biological material in order to satisfy the sufficiency requirements (Rule 28 EPC).
When an invention relates to a process or to the product thereof and involves a biological
material which is not available to the public or which cannot be described in the application in such a way that anyone skilled in the art can reproduce the invention, the sufficiency
requirements are satisfied only if a culture of the biological material has been deposited with a recognized depositary institution.
It is important to note that the deposit should be carried out before filing of the application and that the biological material should be made available as from publication of the European patent application.
However, the applicant has the opportunity to inform the European Patent Office that, up to the date of publication of the mention of grant of the European patent or until such time as the patent application is rejected, withdrawn or deemed to be withdrawn, the biological material can only be made available through the issue of a sample to an Expert nominated by the person making the request.
The option involving the Expert undeniably limits abuses, yet it is often challenged on the grounds that the Expert does not represent the public.
III – FORMAL EXAMINATION
When the European patent application does not satisfy the requirements of Article 80 of the EPC in which is listed the information needed to assign a date of filing, the Receiving Section indicates to the applicant the deficiencies and informs him that the applicant will not be dealt with as a European patent application unless the deficiencies are remedied within one month.
Also, the Receiving Section invites the applicant to carry out rectification of deficiencies contained in the application documents and to identify the inventors if the designation of inventors has not been filed.
If the applicant does not remedy the deficiencies, the application is deemed to be withdrawn, or is refused or certain features are deemed to be withdrawn, depending on the nature of the deficiency.
IV – DRAWING UP OF THE SEARCH REPORT
After formal examination, the Search Division of the EPO draws up the European search report, in which are cited those prior art references which are likely to affect the patentability of the claimed invention.
If the Search Division considers that the application fails to satisfy the unity of invention requirements, it draws up a partial search report relating to the invention or the group of
inventions linked so as to form a single general inventive concept, which is mentioned first in the claims. Simultaneously it invites the applicant to pay, within a prescribed time limit, a further search fee for each other invention contained in the application, if the search report is to cover these other inventions.
The further search fees may be refunded during the examination procedure upon request by the applicant and if the position of the Search Division is found to be unjustified by the Examining Division.
If the further search fees are not paid, the claims covering the further inventions are deemed to be abandoned. However, filing of divisional applications covering the latter will be possible until payment of the grant and printing fees for the patent application.
After receipt of the European search report, the applicant has the opportunity to file comments on the references cited therein and/or to amend the claims and the specification.
V– PUBLICATION OF THE APPLICATION AND OF THE SEARCH REPORT – REQUEST FOR EXAMINATION
European patent applications are automatically published as soon as possible after a term of 18 months as from the filing date or from the priority date, if a priority was claimed.
When the European search report is available before the end of the technical preparations for publication of the application, it is published at the same time as the application. Otherwise it is published later.
The substantive examination must be requested within a time limit of six months following publication of the European search report. If a request for examination has not been filed within the prescribed time limit, it is still possible to do so within a further time limit (one month from receipt of the respective notification), provided that an extra fee is paid within this further time limit.
VI – SUBSTANTIVE EXAMINATION
a) Substantive Examination
At this stage, the examination is substantive, i.e. the Examiner considers whether or not the
application meets the conditions for patentability as set forth in the EPC (sufficiency of disclosure, novelty, inventive step…) and invites the applicant, as often as necessary, to file his remarks and amend the claims and/or specification. Generally, the applicant receives one or two official actions to which he has to reply within a prescribed time limit. Any
amendment effected in the application should be supported by the application as filed. No new matter may be added.
If the applicant fails to reply to an official action within the given time limit, the application is deemed to be withdrawn, unless further proceedings are requested and the corresponding fee paid with a prescribed time limit.
b) Divisional application
If an application fails to satisfy unity of invention requirements (Article 82), the application should be limited to subject-matter relating to one invention or group of inventions satisfying unity requirements, and divisional applications may be filed for other inventions.
In this respect, a group of inventions so linked as to form a single general inventive concept satisfies the unity requirements of the EPC.
Divisional applications are deemed to have been filed on the date of filing of the original application. It is not possible to designate in a divisional application Contracting States which were not designated in the original application.
After filing, divisional applications are treated in the same manner as the other applications.
Divisional applications may also be filed at any time on the applicant’s initiative up to the grant of the patent. Divisional applications cannot be filed after grant and therefore not during opposition proceedings.
c) Grant of the European Patent
When the application is considered to be in order, the examiner informs the applicant of the text according to which he intends to grant the patent and requests the applicant’s approval, pursuant to Rule 51(4) and invites the applicant to pay the granting and printing fees and to file a translation of the claims into the two other official languages.
Finally, the decision to grant the European Patent is issued.
This decision takes effect only on the date on which the European Patent Bulletin mentions publication of the grant.
VII – NATIONAL VALIDATIONS
From publication of the grant, the applicant obtains protection in all of the Contracting States designated in the patent, but this protection will be void if a translation of the patent in the national language is not filed within a prescribed term at the national patent offices of the Contracting States. (It may be noted here that Contracting States may not require a translation
into one of their national languages to be filed in order for the patent to be valid, since Article 65 EPC allows them to waive this requirement.)
In all of the Contracting States, the term for filing the translation is three months from
publication of the mention of the grant, except in Ireland where the term is six months from said publication and in Luxembourg or Monaco where no translation is required.
Recently, several Contracting States have ratified the so-called “London Protocol”, by which translations of the patent specification would no longer be required. It is not known yet when this Protocol will come into force, nor in which Contracting States. This would lead to a substantive reduction in translation costs for European Patents.
VIII – OPPOSITION PROCEDURE
Within nine months from publication of the mention of the grant, any third party may give notice to the European Patent Office of opposition to the granted European patent.
The notice of opposition should include a written reasoned statement and an opposition fee is to be paid.
An opposition may only be filed on the grounds that:
- the subject-matter of the patent is not patentable within the terms of Articles 52 to 57 of the EPC;
- the invention is not disclosed in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by a person skilled in the art;
- the subject-matter of the patent extends beyond the content of the application as filed or beyond the content of the earlier application, if the European patent deriving from a divisional application.
Each opponent is party to the opposition proceedings, as well as the owner of the European patent. It should be noted that any third party, against which an infringement action has been brought, may intervene in the opposition, even after expiration of the opposition period, provided he gives notice on intervention within three months from the date on which the infringement proceedings were initiated.
During the opposition procedure, the Opposition Division invites the parties, as often as necessary, to file comments on the communications from another party or issued by itself.
Three possible outcomes exist in an opposition procedure:
- If the opposition is admissible and the Opposition Division considers the grounds for opposition are well founded, it revokes the European patent.
- On the contrary, if the Opposition Division is of the opinion that the opposition grounds do not prejudice maintenance of the patent as granted, it rejects the opposition.
- The Opposition Division may decide to maintain the European patent as amended by the
owner during the opposition procedure. In this case, a new printing fee is paid and translation of the European patent under amended form should be filed at each of the national patent offices, where required.
IX – APPEAL PROCEDURE
Decisions of the Receiving Section, Examining Divisions, Opposition Divisions and Legal Division may be challenged through an Appeal procedure before the Boards of Appeal.
Any party adversely affected by a decision may appeal. The appeal should be filed within a prescribed time limit after the decision has been issued.
As in the opposition procedure, the Boards of Appeal invites the parties to file comments on the communications, issued by itself or by other parties.
In the appeal procedure, two possible outcomes exist:
- The appeal is dismissed;
- The decision on appeal is set aside and the patent application or patent is further prosecuted
If an important point of law arises, the Board of Appeal may, either on its own motion or following a request from a party to the appeal, refer any question to the Enlarged Board of Appeal.
X – EUROPEAN PHASE OF A PCT APPLICATION
The European route is compulsory for some Contracting States designated in a PCT application: BELGIUM, CYPRUS, FRANCE, GREECE, IRELAND, ITALY, MONACO, and THE NETHERLANDS.
The European phase of a PCT application should be entered up until the end of thirty-one months from the priority date, whether or not the International Preliminary Examination was requested within the time limit of 19 months from the priority date.
The documents required for entry into the European phase of a PCT application are:
- the request for a PCT application;
- a translation into an official language of the EPO (if the language of the PCT application is not one of the official EPO languages) of:
*the PCT specification with the claims as filed;
*the claims as possibly amended during the proceedings before the International Bureau and any statement explaining these amendments (Art. 19(1) PCT);
*any text appearing in the drawings;
*the abstract of the disclosure;
*the annexes to the International Preliminary Examination Report (Art. 36(3b) PCT) (comments and claims);
*any indication relating to micro-organisms (Rule 49.3 and 76.5 PCT); *any request for rectification (Rule 91.1-f PCT)
CONCLUSION
Applicants have, under the European Patent Convention, the possibility to obtain protection in several Contracting States with only one examination procedure, the filing of the European patent application being carried out directly at the EPO or at national patent offices or resulting from entry into the European phase of a PCT application.
A European patent has the same effect in each designated State for which it is validly maintained and is subject to the same conditions as a national patent granted by that State.
Through the European route, translation costs into the language of each designated State for which protection is requested, are postponed up until the grant of the European patent, whereas through national routes, the translation must be carried out upon filing.
It is furthermore possible that in the near future, translation will not be required at all, at least fore some Contracting States, in order to bring the European patent into effect in those States.
Upon granting, the applicant may withdraw one or some designation(s) of Contracting States for which he is no longer interested in seeking patent protection.
?Cabinet Beau de Loménie/August 2004
ANNEX
EPC Contracting States
AT Austria BE Belgium BG Bulgaria CH Switzerland CY Cyprus
CZ Czech Republic DE Germany DK Denmark EE Estonia ES Spain FI Finland FR France
GB United Kingdom
GR Hellenic Republic (Greece)
Extension States
AL Albania HR Croatia LT Lithuania LV Latvia
MK Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ?
HU Hungary IE Ireland IT Italy
LI Liechtenstein LU Luxembourg MC Monaco NL Netherlands PL Poland PT Portugal RO Romania SE Sweden SI Slovenia SK Slovakia TR Turkey
范文三：欧洲航海家 英文版
哥伦布
Christopher Columbus: Explorer of the New World
Christopher Columbus( Italian:Cristoforo Colombo , Spanish:Cristóbal Col ón)- (1451-1506) was an Italian navigator,colinizer and explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492,hoping to find a route to India (in order to trade for spices). He made a total of four trips to the Caribbean and South America during the years 1492-1504.
The First Trip:
Columbus sailed for King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain. On his first trip, Columbus led an expedition with three ships, the Ni?a (captained by Vicente Yá?ez Pinzon), the Pinta (owned and captained by Martin Alonzo Pinzon), and the Santa Maria (captained by Columbus), and about 90 crew members. They set sail on Aug. 3, 1492 from Palos, Spain, and on October 11, 1492, spotted the Caribbean islands off southeastern North America. They landed on an island they called Guanahani, but Columbus later renamed it San Salvador. They were met by the local Taino Indians, many of whom were captured by Columbus' men and later sold into slavery. Columbus thought he had made it to Asia, and called this area the Indies, and called its inhabitants Indians.
While exploring the islands in the area and looking for gold to loot,
Columbus' men traveled to the islands of Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Cuba, and many other smaller islands. On the return trip, the Santa Maria was wrecked and the captain of the Pinta sailed off on his own to try to beat Columbus back. Columbus returned to Spain in the Nina, arriving on March 15, 1493.
The Second Trip:
On a second, larger expedition (Sept. 25, 1493-June 11, 1496), sailed with 17 ships and 1,200 to 1,500 men to find gold and capture Indians as slaves in the Indies. Columbus established a base in Hispaniola and sailed around Hispaniola and along the length of southern Cuba. He spotted and named the island of Dominica on November 3, 1493.
The Third Trip:
On a third expedition (May 30, 1498-October 1500), Columbus sailed farther south, to Trinidad and Venezuela (including the mouth of the Orinoco River). Columbus was the first European since the Viking Leif Ericsson to set foot on the mainland of America
The Fourth Trip:
On his fourth and last expedition (May 9, 1502-Nov. 7, 1504), Columbus sailed to Mexico, Honduras and Panama (in Central America) and Santiago (Jamaica). Columbus is buried in eastern Hispaniola (now called the Dominican Republic).
葡萄牙航海家麦哲伦:
Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese: Fern?o de Magalh?es, Spanish: Fernando de Magallanes) (Spring 1480 – April 27, 1521, Mactan Island, Cebu, Philippines) was a Portuguese maritime explorer who, while in the service of the Spanish Crown, tried to find a westward route to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. He thereby became the first person to lead an expedition across the Pacific Ocean. This was also the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth in history. Although he did not complete the entire voyage (he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines), Magellan had earlier traveled eastward to the Spice Islands, so he became one of the first individuals to cross all of the meridians of the Globe.
Magellan was the first European to enter the Pacific from the eponymous Strait of Magellan, which he discovered. He was also the first European to reach the archipelago of what is now known as the Philippines, which was unknown to the western world before his landing. Arab traders had established commerce within the archipelago centuries earlier. Of the 237 men who set out on five ships to circumnavigate the earth, only 18 completed the circumnavigation of the globe and managed to return to Spain in 1522.They were led by the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, who took over command of the expedition after Magellan's death. Seventeen other men arrived later in Spain, twelve men captured by the Portuguese in Cape Verde some weeks earlier, and in 1525/1526 five
survivors of the Trinidad.
Origins and first voyage
Magellan, because of his family's heritage, became a page to Queen Leonor at the royal court after the death of his parents during his tenth year. Very little is known about Magellan's background. He was the son of Rui de Magalh?es (son of Pedro Afonso de Magalh?es and wife Quinta de Sousa) and wife Alda de Mesquita, and brother of Duarte de Sousa, Diogo de Sousa and Isabel de Magalh?es, but exactly how he is connected to the respective families it is unknown. He was married to Beatriz Barbosa and had two children: Rodrigo de Magalh?es[3] and Carlos de Magalh?es, both of whom died at a young age.
Magellan made his first known expedition at sea at the age of 25 in 1505, when he was sent to India to install Francisco de Almeida as the Portuguese viceroy. The voyage gave Magellan his first experience of battle when a local king, who had paid tribute to Vasco da Gama three years earlier, refused to pay tribute to Almeida, which resulted in the Battle of Diu in 1509. After taking leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour with Almeida and was also accused of trading illegally with the Moors. Several of the accusations were subsequently proved and there were no further offers of employment after May 15, 1514. Later on in 1515, Magellan had an employment offer as a crew member on a Portuguese ship, but rejected this offer.
Spanish search of the Spice Islands
The aim of Christopher Columbus' voyage to the West was to reach the coasts of the Spice Islands (or the Indies) and to establish commercial relations between Spain and the several Asian kingdoms. The Spanish soon realised after Columbus' voyages that the lands of the Americas were not a part of Asia, but a new continent. Once Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese arrived in India in 1498, it became urgent for Spain to find a new commercial route to Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas reserved for Portugal the routes that went around Africa. The Spanish Crown then decided to send out exploration voyages in order to find a way to Asia by travelling westwards. Vasco Nú?ez de Balboa sailed the Pacific Ocean in 1513, and Juan D íaz de Sol ís died in R ío de la Plata some years later trying to find a passage in South America.
When Magellan arrived at the Court of Spain, he presented King Charles V with a plan that would give the ships of the Crown of Castile full access to the lands of the Spice Islands, after that plan failing to gain approval from the Portuguese king, Manuel I.
Journey
On August 10, 1519, five ships under Magellan's command – Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepci ón, Victoria, and Santiago – left Seville and travelled from the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de Barrameda at the mouth of the river, where they remained more than five weeks.
Spanish authorities were wary of Magellan, who was originally Portuguese. They almost prevented the admiral from sailing, and switched his crew from mostly Portuguese men to men of Spain. Nevertheless, Magellan set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda with about 270 men on September 20. King Manuel ordered a Portuguese naval detachment to pursue Magellan, but Magellan avoided them. After stopping at the Canary Islands, Magellan arrived at Cape Verde, where he set course for Cape St. Augustine in Brazil. On November 27, the expedition crossed the equator; on December 6, the crew sighted South America.
Magellan's ship VictoriaSince Brazil was Portuguese territory, Magellan avoided it, and on December 13 anchored near present-day Rio de Janeiro. There the crew was resupplied, but bad conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along South America's east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached R ío de la Plata on January 10, 1520. On March 30, the crew established a settlement they called Puerto San Julian. On April 2, a mutiny involving two of the five ship captains broke out, but it was unsuccessful because most of the crew remained loyal. Juan Sebasti án Elcano was one of those who were forgiven. Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian from Vicenza who paid to be on the Magellan voyage, related that Gaspar Quesada, the captain of Concepcion, was executed; Juan de Cartagena, the captain of San Antonio, and a priest named Padre Sanchez
de la Reina were instead marooned on the coast. Another account states that Luis de Mendoza, the captain of Victoria, was executed along with Quesada. Reportedly those killed were drawn and quartered and impaled on the coast; years later, their bones were found by Sir Francis Drake. The Strait of Mage 迪亚士
Bartolomeu Dias (Portuguese pronunciation: [ba?tulu ?mew ?di. ??]; Anglicized: Bartholomew Diaz ; c. 1451 – 29 May 1500[2]), a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household , was a Portuguese explorer . He sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488, reaching the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic , the first European known to have done so.
Purposes of the Dias expedition[edit ]
Bartolomeu Dias was a Knight of the royal court, superintendent of the royal warehouses, and sailing-master of the man-of-war , S?o Cristóv?o (Saint
Christopher ). King John II of Portugal appointed him, on 10 October 1487, to head an expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa in the hope of finding a trade route to India. Dias was also charged with searching for the lands ruled by Prester John, who was a fabled Christian priest and ruler.[3]
The expedition[edit ]
Dias' ship S?o Cristóv?o was piloted by P ê
ro de Alenquer . A second
caravel, the S?o Pantale?o, was commanded by Jo?o Infante and piloted by álvaro Martins. Dias' brother P êro Dias was the captain of the square-rigged support ship with Jo?o de Santiago as pilot.[citation needed]
An illustration of the S?o Cristóv?o and S?o Pantale?o
The expedition sailed south along the west coast of Africa. Extra provisions were picked up on the way at the Portuguese fortress of S?o Jorge de Mina on the Gold Coast . After having sailed past Angola, Dias reached the Golfo da Conceic?o (Walvis Bay ) by December. Continuing south, he discovered first Angra dos Ilheus, being hit, then, by a violent storm. Thirteen days later, from the open ocean, he searched the coast again to the east, discovering and using the westerlies winds - the ocean gyre , but finding just ocean. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope at a considerable distance to the west and southwest, he turned towards the east, and taking advantage of the winds of Antarctica that blow strongly in the South Atlantic, he sailed northeast. After 30 days without seeing land, he entered what he named Aguada de S?o Brás (Bay of Saint Blaise ) — later renamed Mossel Bay — on 4 February 1488. Dias's expedition reached its furthest point on 12 March 1488 when they anchored at Kwaaihoek , near the mouth of the Boesmans River, where a padr?o— the Padr?o de S?o Gregório — was erected before turning back.[4] Dias wanted to continue sailing to India, but he was forced to turn back when his crew refused to go further.[5] It was only on the return voyage that he actually discovered the Cape of Good Hope, in May 1488. Dias returned to Lisbon in December of that year, after an absence of sixteen months. [citation needed]
The discovery of the passage around southern Africa was significant because, for the first time, Europeans realised they could trade directly with India and the other parts of Asia, bypassing the overland route through the Middle East, with its expensive middlemen . The official report of the expedition has been lost.[citation needed ]
Bartolomeu Dias originally named the Cape of Good Hope the
Follow-up voyages[edit ]
After these early attempts, the Portuguese took a decade-long break from Indian Ocean exploration. During that hiatus, it is likely that they received valuable information from a secret agent, P êro d a Covilh?, who had been sent overland to India and returned with reports useful to their navigators.[6]
Using his experience with explorative travel, Dias helped in the construction of the S?o Gabriel and its sister ship, the S?o Rafael that were used by Vasco da Gama to sail past the Cape of Good Hope and continue to India. Dias only participated in the first leg of Da Gama's voyage, until the Cape Verde Islands . Two years later he was one of the captains of the second Indian expedition , headed by Pedro álvares Cabral . This flotilla first reached the coast of Brazil , landing there in 1500, and then continued eastwards to India. Dias perished near the Cape of Good Hope that
he presciently had named Cape of Storms. Four ships encountered a huge storm off the cape and were lost, including Dias', on 29 May 1500. A shipwreck found in 2008 by the Namdeb Diamond Corporation off Namibia was at first thought to be Dias' ship; [7] however, recovered coins come from a later time.[8]
Personal life[edit ]
Bartolomeu Dias was married and had two children:
?Sim?o Dias de Novais, who died unmarried and without issue.
?Ant ónio Dias de Novais, a Knight of the Order of Christ , married to (apparently his relative, since the surname Novais was transmitted through her brother's offspring) Joana Fernandes, daughter of Fern?o Pires and wife Guiomar Mont ês (and sister of Brites Fernandes and Fern?o Pires, married to Inês Nogueira, daughter of Jorge Nogueira and wife, and had issue). Dias' grandson Paulo Dias de Novais was a Portuguese coloniser of Africa in the 16th century. Dias' granddaughter, Guiomar de Novais married twice, as his second wife to Dom Rodrigo de Castro, son of Dom Nuno de Castro and wife Joana da Silveira, by whom she had Dona Paula de Novais and Dona Violante de Castro, both died unmarried and without issue, and to Pedro Correia da Silva, natural son of Cristóv?o Correia da Silva, without issue.[citation needed]
达伽马
Vasco da Gama
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Vasco da Gama (disambiguation).
Vasco da Gama , 1st Count of Vidigueira (Portuguese pronunciation: [?va ?ku e????m ?]; c. 1460s – 24 December 1524), was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497– 1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route, connecting the Atlantic and the Indian oceans and, in this way, the West and the Orient .
Da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India was significant and opened the way for an age of global imperialism and for the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting colonial empire in Asia. Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to avoid sailing across the highly
disputed Mediterranean and traversing the dangerous Arabian Peninsula . The sum of the distances covered in the outward and return voyages made this expedition the longest ocean voyage ever made until then, far longer than a full voyage around the world by way of the Equator . [1]
After decades of sailors trying to reach the Indies, with thousands of lives and dozens of vessels lost in shipwrecks and attacks, da Gama landed in Calicut on 20 May 1498. Unopposed access to the Indian spice routes boosted the economy of the Portuguese Empire , which was previously based along northern and coastal West Africa. The spices obtained from Southeast Asia were
primarily pepper and cinnamon at first, but soon included other products, all new to Europe. Portugal maintained a commercial monopoly of these commodities for several decades. It would be
a century later before other European powers such as the Netherlands and England , followed
by France and Denmark , were able to challenge Portugal's monopoly and naval supremacy in the Cape Route.
Da Gama led two of the Portuguese armadas destined for India , the first and the fourth. The latter was the largest and departed for India four years after his return from the first one. For his contributions, Da Gama was appointed theGovernor of India in 1524, under the title of Viceroy , and given the newly created County of Vidigueira in 1519. Vasco da Gama remains a leading figure in the history of exploration. Numerous homages have been made worldwide to celebrate his explorations and accomplishments. The Portuguese national epic, Os Lus íadas , was written in his honour. His first trip to India is widely considered a milestone in world history, as it marked the beginning of a sea-based phase of global multiculturalism.[2]
In March 2016, researchers announced that thousands of artifacts and vessel remains had been recovered from the shipEsmeralda , one of Da Gama's armada, found off the coast of Oman . [3]
麦哲伦
For the eponymous railcar, see Ferdinand Magellan (railcar).
Ferdinand Magellan (/m??ɡ?l ?n/[1] or /m??d ??l ?n/; [2]Portuguese : Fern?o de
Magalh?es, IPA: [f???n ??w e? m???????j ?]; Spanish:Fernando de Magallanes, IPA: [fer?nando ee ma?a ??anes]; c. 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer who organised the Castilian ('Spanish' ) expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the firstcircumnavigation of the Earth, completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano.
Born into a Portuguese noble family in around 1480, Magellan became a skilled sailor and naval officer and was eventually selected by King Charles I of Spain to search for a westward route to the Maluku Islands (the
Ferdinand Magellan, traveling west from Europe, in 1521, reached a region of Southeast Asia (the Malay Archipelago), which he had reached on previous voyages traveling east (from 1505 to 1511-1512). Magellan thereby achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history.[3][4]
The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. [5] Magellan's navigational skills have also been acknowledged in the naming of objects associated with the stars, including the Magellanic Clouds, now known to be two nearby dwarf galaxies; the twin lunar craters of Magelhaens and Magelhaens A ; and the Martian crater of Magelhaens. [6]
For the eponymous railcar, see Ferdinand Magellan (railcar).
Ferdinand Magellan (/m??ɡ?l ?n/[1] or /m??d ??l ?n/; [2]Portuguese : Fern?o de
Magalh?es, IPA: [f???n ??w e? m???????j ?]; Spanish:Fernando de Magallanes, IPA: [fer?nando ee ma?a ??anes]; c. 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer who organised the Castilian ('Spanish' ) expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the firstcircumnavigation of the Earth, completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano.
Born into a Portuguese noble family in around 1480, Magellan became a skilled sailor and naval officer and was eventually selected by King Charles I of Spain to search for a westward route to the Maluku Islands (the
Ferdinand Magellan, traveling west from Europe, in 1521, reached a region of Southeast Asia (the Malay Archipelago), which he had reached on previous voyages traveling east (from 1505 to 1511-1512). Magellan thereby achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history.[3][4]
The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. [5] Magellan's navigational skills have also been acknowledged in the naming of objects associated with the stars, including the Magellanic Clouds, now known to be two nearby dwarf galaxies; the twin lunar craters of Magelhaens and Magelhaens A ; and the Martian crater of Magelhaens. [6]
佩德罗 ·阿尔瓦雷斯 ·卡布拉尔
Pedro álvares Cabral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pedro álvares Cabral[A] (European Portuguese: [?pee?u ?a ?v ?r(?) ? k??β?a ?] or Brazilian
Portuguese: [?ped ?u ?awva ?is ka?b ?aw]; c. 1467 or 1468 – c. 1520) was a Portuguese nobleman, military commander, navigator and explorer regarded as the discoverer of Brazil . Cabral conducted the first substantial exploration of the northeast coast of South America and claimed it for Portugal. While details of Cabral's early life are unclear, it is known that he came from a minor noble family and received a good education. He was appointed to head an expedition to India in 1500, following Vasco da Gama's newly opened route around Africa. The object of the
undertaking was to return with valuable spices and to establish trade relations in India — bypassing the monopoly on the spice trade then in the hands of Arab, Turkish and Italian merchants. Although the previous expedition of Vasco da Gama to India, on its sea route, recorded signs of land west of the southern Atlantic Ocean (in 1497), Cabral is regarded as the first captain who ever touched four continents, leading the first expedition that united Europe , Africa , America , and Asia . [2]
His fleet of 13 ships sailed far into the western Atlantic Ocean, perhaps intentionally, where he made landfall on what he initially assumed to be a large island. As the new land was within the Portuguese sphere according to the Treaty of Tordesillas , Cabral claimed it for the Portuguese Crown. He explored the coast, realizing that the large land mass was probably a continent, and dispatched a ship to notify King Manuel I of the new territory. The continent was South America, and the land he had claimed for Portugal later came to be known as Brazil. The fleet reprovisioned and then turned eastward to resume the journey to India.
A storm in the southern Atlantic caused the loss of several ships, and the six remaining ships eventually rendezvoused in the Mozambique Channel before proceeding to Calicut in India. Cabral was originally successful in negotiating trading rights, but Arab merchants saw Portugal's venture as a threat to their monopoly and stirred up an attack by both Muslims and Hindus on the Portuguese entrep?t. The Portuguese sustained many casualties and their facilities were destroyed. Cabral took vengeance by looting and burning the Arab fleet and then bombarded the city in retaliation for its ruler having failed to explain the unexpected attack. From Calicut the expedition sailed to the Kingdom of Cochin, another Indian city-state , where Cabral befriended its ruler and loaded his ships with coveted spices before returning to Europe. Despite the loss of human lives and ships, Cabral's voyage was deemed a success upon his return to Portugal. The extraordinary profits resulting from the sale of the spices bolstered the Portuguese Crown's finances and helped lay the foundation of a Portuguese Empire that would stretch from the Americas to the Far East.[B]
Cabral was later passed over, possibly as a result of a quarrel with Manuel I, when a new fleet was assembled to establish a more robust presence in India. Having lost favor with the King, he retired to a private life of which few records survive. His accomplishments slipped mostly into obscurity for more than 300 years. Decades after Brazil's independence from Portugal in the 19th century, Cabral's reputation began to be rehabilitated by Emperor Pedro II of Brazil . Historians have long argued whether Cabral was Brazil's discoverer, and whether the discovery was accidental or intentional. The first question has been settled by the observation that the few, cursory encounters by explorers before him were barely noticed at the time and contributed nothing to the future development and history of the land which would become Brazil, the sole
Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. On the second question, no definite consensus has been formed, and the intentional discovery hypothesis lacks solid proof. Nevertheless, although he was overshadowed by contemporary explorers, Cabral today is regarded as a major figure of the Age of Discovery.
范文四：欧洲航海家 英文版
哥伦布
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS: EXPLORER OF THE NEW WORLD
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS( ITALIAN:CRISTOFORO
COLOMBO～SPANISH:CRISTóBAL COLóN)- (1451-1506) WAS AN ITALIAN NAVIGATOR,COLINIZER AND EXPLORER WHO SAILED ACROSS THE ATLANTIC OCEAN IN 1492,HOPING TO FIND A ROUTE TO INDIA (IN ORDER TO TRADE FOR SPICES). HE MADE A TOTAL OF FOUR TRIPS TO THE CARIBBEAN AND SOUTH AMERICA DURING THE YEARS 1492-1504. THE FIRST TRIP:
COLUMBUS SAILED FOR KING FERDINAND II AND QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN. ON HIS FIRST TRIP, COLUMBUS LED AN EXPEDITION WITH THREE SHIPS, THE NI?A (CAPTAINED BY VICENTE Yá?EZ PINZON), THE PINTA (OWNED AND CAPTAINED BY MARTIN ALONZO PINZON), AND THE SANTA MARIA (CAPTAINED BY COLUMBUS), AND ABOUT 90 CREW MEMBERS. THEY SET SAIL ON AUG. 3, 1492 FROM PALOS, SPAIN, AND ON OCTOBER 11, 1492, SPOTTED THE CARIBBEAN ISLANDS OFF SOUTHEASTERN NORTH AMERICA. THEY LANDED ON AN ISLAND THEY CALLED GUANAHANI, BUT COLUMBUS LATER RENAMED IT SAN SALVADOR. THEY WERE MET BY THE LOCAL TAINO INDIANS, MANY OF WHOM WERE CAPTURED BY COLUMBUS' MEN AND LATER SOLD INTO SLAVERY. COLUMBUS THOUGHT HE HAD MADE IT TO ASIA, AND CALLED THIS AREA THE INDIES, AND CALLED ITS INHABITANTS INDIANS.
WHILE EXPLORING THE ISLANDS IN THE AREA AND LOOKING FOR GOLD TO LOOT, COLUMBUS' MEN TRAVELED TO THE ISLANDS OF HISPANIOLA (NOW DIVIDED INTO HAITI AND THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC), CUBA, AND MANY OTHER SMALLER ISLANDS. ON THE RETURN TRIP, THE SANTA MARIA WAS WRECKED AND THE CAPTAIN OF THE PINTA SAILED OFF ON HIS OWN TO TRY TO BEAT COLUMBUS BACK. COLUMBUS RETURNED TO SPAIN IN THE NINA, ARRIVING ON MARCH 15, 1493.
THE SECOND TRIP:
ON A SECOND, LARGER EXPEDITION (SEPT. 25, 1493-JUNE 11, 1496), SAILED WITH 17 SHIPS AND 1,200 TO 1,500 MEN TO FIND GOLD AND CAPTURE INDIANS AS SLAVES IN THE INDIES. COLUMBUS ESTABLISHED A BASE IN HISPANIOLA AND SAILED AROUND HISPANIOLA AND ALONG THE LENGTH OF SOUTHERN CUBA. HE SPOTTED AND NAMED THE ISLAND OF DOMINICA ON NOVEMBER 3, 1493.
THE THIRD TRIP:
ON A THIRD EXPEDITION (MAY 30, 1498-OCTOBER 1500), COLUMBUS SAILED FARTHER SOUTH, TO TRINIDAD AND VENEZUELA (INCLUDING THE MOUTH OF THE ORINOCO RIVER). COLUMBUS WAS THE FIRST EUROPEAN SINCE THE VIKING LEIF ERICSSON TO SET FOOT ON THE MAINLAND OF AMERICA
THE FOURTH TRIP:
ON HIS FOURTH AND LAST EXPEDITION (MAY 9, 1502-NOV. 7, 1504), COLUMBUS SAILED TO MEXICO, HONDURAS AND PANAMA (IN CENTRAL AMERICA) AND SANTIAGO (JAMAICA). COLUMBUS IS BURIED IN EASTERN HISPANIOLA (NOW CALLED THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC).葡萄牙航海家哲伦,麦
FERDINAND MAGELLAN (PORTUGUESE: FERN?O DE MAGALH?ES, SPANISH: FERNANDO DE MAGALLANES) (SPRING 1480 – APRIL 27, 1521, MACTAN ISLAND, CEBU, PHILIPPINES) WAS A PORTUGUESE MARITIME EXPLORER WHO, WHILE IN THE SERVICE OF THE SPANISH CROWN, TRIED TO FIND A WESTWARD ROUTE TO THE SPICE ISLANDS OF INDONESIA. HE THEREBY BECAME THE FIRST PERSON TO LEAD AN EXPEDITION ACROSS THE PACIFIC OCEAN. THIS WAS ALSO THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT TO CIRCUMNAVIGATE THE EARTH IN HISTORY. ALTHOUGH HE DID NOT COMPLETE THE ENTIRE VOYAGE (HE WAS KILLED DURING THE BATTLE OF MACTAN IN THE PHILIPPINES), MAGELLAN HAD EARLIER TRAVELED EASTWARD TO THE SPICE ISLANDS, SO HE BECAME ONE OF THE FIRST INDIVIDUALS TO CROSS ALL OF THE MERIDIANS OF THE GLOBE.
MAGELLAN WAS THE FIRST EUROPEAN TO ENTER THE PACIFIC FROM THE EPONYMOUS STRAIT OF MAGELLAN, WHICH HE DISCOVERED. HE WAS ALSO THE FIRST EUROPEAN TO REACH THE ARCHIPELAGO OF WHAT IS NOW KNOWN AS THE PHILIPPINES, WHICH WAS UNKNOWN TO THE WESTERN WORLD BEFORE HIS LANDING. ARAB TRADERS HAD ESTABLISHED COMMERCE WITHIN THE ARCHIPELAGO CENTURIES EARLIER.
OF THE 237 MEN WHO SET OUT ON FIVE SHIPS TO CIRCUMNAVIGATE THE EARTH, ONLY 18 COMPLETED THE CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE AND MANAGED TO RETURN TO SPAIN IN 1522.THEY WERE LED BY THE BASQUE NAVIGATOR JUAN SEBASTIáN ELCANO, WHO TOOK OVER COMMAND OF THE EXPEDITION AFTER MAGELLAN'S DEATH. SEVENTEEN OTHER MEN ARRIVED LATER IN SPAIN, TWELVE MEN CAPTURED BY THE PORTUGUESE IN CAPE VERDE SOME WEEKS EARLIER, AND IN 1525/1526 FIVE SURVIVORS OF THE TRINIDAD.
ORIGINS AND FIRST VOYAGE
MAGELLAN, BECAUSE OF HIS FAMILY'S HERITAGE, BECAME A PAGE TO QUEEN LEONOR AT THE ROYAL COURT AFTER THE DEATH OF HIS PARENTS DURING HIS TENTH YEAR. VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN ABOUT MAGELLAN'S BACKGROUND. HE WAS THE SON OF RUI DE MAGALH?ES (SON OF PEDRO AFONSO DE MAGALH?ES AND WIFE QUINTA DE SOUSA) AND WIFE ALDA DE MESQUITA, AND BROTHER OF DUARTE DE SOUSA, DIOGO DE SOUSA AND ISABEL DE MAGALH?ES, BUT EXACTLY HOW HE IS CONNECTED TO THE RESPECTIVE FAMILIES IT IS UNKNOWN. HE WAS MARRIED TO BEATRIZ BARBOSA AND HAD TWO CHILDREN: RODRIGO DE MAGALH?ES[3] AND CARLOS DE MAGALH?ES, BOTH OF WHOM DIED AT A YOUNG AGE.
MAGELLAN MADE HIS FIRST KNOWN EXPEDITION AT SEA AT THE
AGE OF 25 IN 1505, WHEN HE WAS SENT TO INDIA TO INSTALL FRANCISCO DE ALMEIDA AS THE PORTUGUESE VICEROY. THE VOYAGE GAVE MAGELLAN HIS FIRST EXPERIENCE OF BATTLE WHEN A LOCAL KING, WHO HAD PAID TRIBUTE TO VASCO DA GAMA THREE YEARS EARLIER, REFUSED TO PAY TRIBUTE TO ALMEIDA, WHICH RESULTED IN THE BATTLE OF DIU IN 1509. AFTER TAKING LEAVE WITHOUT PERMISSION, MAGELLAN FELL OUT OF FAVOUR WITH ALMEIDA AND WAS ALSO ACCUSED OF TRADING ILLEGALLY WITH THE MOORS. SEVERAL OF THE ACCUSATIONS WERE SUBSEQUENTLY PROVED AND THERE WERE NO FURTHER OFFERS OF EMPLOYMENT AFTER MAY 15, 1514. LATER ON IN 1515, MAGELLAN HAD AN EMPLOYMENT OFFER AS A CREW MEMBER ON A PORTUGUESE SHIP, BUT REJECTED THIS OFFER. SPANISH SEARCH OF THE SPICE ISLANDS
THE AIM OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS' VOYAGE TO THE WEST WAS TO REACH THE COASTS OF THE SPICE ISLANDS (OR THE INDIES) AND TO ESTABLISH COMMERCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN SPAIN AND THE SEVERAL ASIAN KINGDOMS. THE SPANISH SOON REALISED AFTER COLUMBUS' VOYAGES THAT THE LANDS OF THE AMERICAS WERE NOT A PART OF ASIA, BUT A NEW CONTINENT. ONCE VASCO DA GAMA AND THE PORTUGUESE ARRIVED IN INDIA IN 1498, IT BECAME URGENT FOR SPAIN TO FIND A NEW COMMERCIAL ROUTE TO ASIA. THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS RESERVED FOR PORTUGAL THE ROUTES THAT WENT AROUND AFRICA. THE SPANISH CROWN THEN DECIDED TO SEND OUT EXPLORATION VOYAGES IN ORDER TO FIND A WAY TO ASIA BY TRAVELLING WESTWARDS. VASCO Nú?EZ DE BALBOA SAILED THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN 1513, AND JUAN DíAZ DE SOLíS DIED IN RíO DE LA PLATA SOME YEARS LATER TRYING TO FIND A PASSAGE IN SOUTH AMERICA.
WHEN MAGELLAN ARRIVED AT THE COURT OF SPAIN, HE PRESENTED KING CHARLES V WITH A PLAN THAT WOULD GIVE THE SHIPS OF THE CROWN OF CASTILE FULL ACCESS TO THE LANDS OF THE SPICE ISLANDS, AFTER THAT PLAN FAILING TO GAIN APPROVAL FROM THE PORTUGUESE KING, MANUEL I.
JOURNEY
ON AUGUST 10, 1519, FIVE SHIPS UNDER MAGELLAN'S COMMAND – TRINIDAD, SAN ANTONIO, CONCEPCIóN, VICTORIA, AND SANTIAGO – LEFT SEVILLE AND TRAVELLED FROM THE GUADALQUIVIR RIVER TO SANLúCAR DE BARRAMEDA AT THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER, WHERE THEY REMAINED MORE THAN FIVE WEEKS.
SPANISH AUTHORITIES WERE WARY OF MAGELLAN, WHO WAS ORIGINALLY PORTUGUESE. THEY ALMOST PREVENTED THE ADMIRAL FROM SAILING, AND SWITCHED HIS CREW FROM MOSTLY PORTUGUESE MEN TO MEN OF SPAIN. NEVERTHELESS, MAGELLAN SET SAIL FROM SANLúCAR DE BARRAMEDA WITH ABOUT 270 MEN ON SEPTEMBER 20. KING MANUEL ORDERED A PORTUGUESE NAVAL DETACHMENT TO PURSUE MAGELLAN, BUT MAGELLAN AVOIDED THEM. AFTER STOPPING AT THE CANARY ISLANDS, MAGELLAN ARRIVED AT CAPE VERDE, WHERE HE SET COURSE FOR CAPE ST. AUGUSTINE IN BRAZIL. ON NOVEMBER 27, THE EXPEDITION CROSSED
THE EQUATOR; ON DECEMBER 6, THE CREW SIGHTED SOUTH AMERICA.
MAGELLAN'S SHIP VICTORIASINCE BRAZIL WAS PORTUGUESE TERRITORY, MAGELLAN AVOIDED IT, AND ON DECEMBER 13 ANCHORED NEAR PRESENT-DAY RIO DE JANEIRO. THERE THE CREW WAS RESUPPLIED, BUT BAD CONDITIONS CAUSED THEM TO DELAY. AFTERWARDS, THEY CONTINUED TO SAIL SOUTH ALONG SOUTH AMERICA'S EAST COAST, LOOKING FOR THE STRAIT THAT MAGELLAN BELIEVED WOULD LEAD TO THE SPICE ISLANDS. THE FLEET REACHED RíO DE LA PLATA ON JANUARY 10, 1520.
ON MARCH 30, THE CREW ESTABLISHED A SETTLEMENT THEY CALLED PUERTO SAN JULIAN. ON APRIL 2, A MUTINY INVOLVING TWO OF THE FIVE SHIP CAPTAINS BROKE OUT, BUT IT WAS UNSUCCESSFUL BECAUSE MOST OF THE CREW REMAINED LOYAL. JUAN SEBASTIáN ELCANO WAS ONE OF THOSE WHO WERE FORGIVEN. ANTONIO PIGAFETTA, AN ITALIAN FROM VICENZA WHO PAID TO BE ON THE MAGELLAN VOYAGE, RELATED THAT GASPAR QUESADA, THE CAPTAIN OF CONCEPCION, WAS EXECUTED; JUAN DE CARTAGENA, THE CAPTAIN OF SAN ANTONIO, AND A PRIEST NAMED PADRE SANCHEZ DE LA REINA WERE INSTEAD MAROONED ON THE COAST. ANOTHER ACCOUNT STATES THAT LUIS DE MENDOZA, THE CAPTAIN OF VICTORIA, WAS EXECUTED ALONG WITH QUESADA. REPORTEDLY THOSE KILLED WERE DRAWN AND QUARTERED AND IMPALED ON THE COAST; YEARS LATER, THEIR BONES WERE FOUND BY SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. THE STRAIT OF MAGE
迪伦士
BARTOLOMEU DIAS (PORTUGUESE PRONUNCIATION: [BATULU?MEW ?DI.?]??;
ANGLICIZED: BARTHOLOMEW DIAZ; C. 1451 – 29 MAY 1500[2]), A NOBLEMAN OF
THE PORTUGUESE ROYAL HOUSEHOLD, WAS A PORTUGUESE EXPLORER. HE
SAILED AROUND THE SOUTHERNMOST TIP OF AFRICA IN 1488, REACHING THE INDIAN OCEAN FROM THE ATLANTIC, THE FIRST EUROPEAN KNOWN TO
HAVE DONE SO.
PURPOSES OF THE DIAS EXPEDITION[EDIT]
BARTOLOMEU DIAS WAS A KNIGHT OF THE ROYAL COURT, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE ROYAL WAREHOUSES, AND SAILING-MASTER OF THE MAN-OF-WAR, S?O
CRISTóV?O (SAINT CHRISTOPHER). KING JOHN II OF PORTUGAL APPOINTED
HIM, ON 10 OCTOBER 1487, TO HEAD AN EXPEDITION TO SAIL AROUND THE SOUTHERN TIP OF AFRICA IN THE HOPE OF FINDING A TRADE ROUTE TO INDIA. DIAS WAS ALSO CHARGED WITH SEARCHING FOR THE LANDS RULED BY PRESTER JOHN, WHO WAS A FABLED CHRISTIAN PRIEST AND RULER.[3]
THE EXPEDITION[EDIT]
DIAS' SHIP S?O CRISTóV?O WAS PILOTED BY PêRO DE ALENQUER. A SECOND
CARAVEL, THE S?O PANTALE?O, WAS COMMANDED BY JO?O INFANTE AND
PILOTED BY áLVARO MARTINS. DIAS' BROTHER PêRO DIAS WAS THE CAPTAIN OF
THE SQUARE-RIGGED SUPPORT SHIP WITH JO?O DE SANTIAGO AS PILOT.[CITATION NEEDED]
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE S?O CRISTóV?O AND S?O PANTALE?O
THE EXPEDITION SAILED SOUTH ALONG THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. EXTRA PROVISIONS WERE PICKED UP ON THE WAY AT THE PORTUGUESE FORTRESS OF S?O JORGE DE MINA ON THE GOLD COAST. AFTER HAVING SAILED PAST
ANGOLA, DIAS REACHED THE GOLFO DA CONCEIC?O (WALVIS BAY) BY
DECEMBER. CONTINUING SOUTH, HE DISCOVERED FIRST ANGRA DOS ILHEUS, BEING HIT, THEN, BY A VIOLENT STORM. THIRTEEN DAYS LATER, FROM THE OPEN OCEAN, HE SEARCHED THE COAST AGAIN TO THE EAST, DISCOVERING AND USING THE WESTERLIES WINDS - THE OCEAN GYRE, BUT FINDING JUST OCEAN.
HAVING ROUNDED THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AT A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE TO THE WEST AND SOUTHWEST, HE TURNED TOWARDS THE EAST, AND TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE WINDS OF ANTARCTICA THAT BLOW STRONGLY IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC, HE SAILED NORTHEAST. AFTER 30 DAYS WITHOUT SEEING LAND, HE ENTERED WHAT HE NAMED AGUADA DE S?O BRáS (BAY OF SAINT
BLAISE)—LATER RENAMED MOSSEL BAY—ON 4 FEBRUARY 1488. DIAS'S
EXPEDITION REACHED ITS FURTHEST POINT ON 12 MARCH 1488 WHEN THEY ANCHORED ATKWAAIHOEK, NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE BOESMANS RIVER,
WHERE A PADR?O—THE PADR?O DE S?O GREGóRIO—WAS ERECTED BEFORE TURNING BACK.[4] DIAS WANTED TO CONTINUE SAILING TO INDIA, BUT HE WAS FORCED TO TURN BACK WHEN HIS CREW REFUSED TO GO FURTHER.[5] IT WAS
ONLY ON THE RETURN VOYAGE THAT HE ACTUALLY DISCOVERED THE CAPE OF
GOOD HOPE, IN MAY 1488. DIAS RETURNED TO LISBON IN DECEMBER OF THAT
YEAR, AFTER AN ABSENCE OF SIXTEEN MONTHS.[CITATION NEEDED]
THE DISCOVERY OF THE PASSAGE AROUND SOUTHERN AFRICA WAS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE, FOR THE FIRST TIME, EUROPEANS REALISED THEY COULD TRADE DIRECTLY WITH INDIA AND THE OTHER PARTS OF ASIA, BYPASSING THE OVERLAND ROUTE THROUGH THE MIDDLE EAST, WITH ITS EXPENSIVE MIDDLEMEN. THE OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE EXPEDITION HAS BEEN LOST.[CITATION NEEDED]
BARTOLOMEU DIAS ORIGINALLY NAMED THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE THE "CAPE OF STORMS" (CABO DAS TORMENTAS). IT WAS LATER RENAMED (BY KING JOHN II
OF PORTUGAL) THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (CABO DA BOA ESPERAN?A) BECAUSE IT REPRESENTED THE OPENING OF A ROUTE TO THE EAST.[CITATION NEEDED]
FOLLOW-UP VOYAGES[EDIT]
AFTER THESE EARLY ATTEMPTS, THE PORTUGUESE TOOK A DECADE-LONG BREAK FROM INDIAN OCEAN EXPLORATION. DURING THAT HIATUS, IT IS LIKELY THAT THEY RECEIVED VALUABLE INFORMATION FROM A SECRET AGENT, PêRO
DA COVILH?, WHO HAD BEEN SENT OVERLAND TO INDIA AND RETURNED WITH REPORTS USEFUL TO THEIR NAVIGATORS.[6]
USING HIS EXPERIENCE WITH EXPLORATIVE TRAVEL, DIAS HELPED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE S?O GABRIEL AND ITS SISTER SHIP, THE S?O
RAFAEL THAT WERE USED BY VASCO DA GAMA TO SAIL PAST THE CAPE OF GOOD
HOPE AND CONTINUE TO INDIA. DIAS ONLY PARTICIPATED IN THE FIRST LEG OF DA GAMA'S VOYAGE, UNTIL THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. TWO YEARS LATER HE
WAS ONE OF THE CAPTAINS OF THE SECOND INDIAN EXPEDITION, HEADED
BY PEDRO áLVARES CABRAL. THIS FLOTILLA FIRST REACHED THE COAST OF BRAZIL, LANDING THERE IN 1500, AND THEN CONTINUED EASTWARDS TO INDIA. DIAS PERISHED NEAR THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE THAT HE PRESCIENTLY HAD NAMED CAPE OF STORMS. FOUR SHIPS ENCOUNTERED A HUGE STORM OFF THE CAPE AND WERE LOST, INCLUDING DIAS', ON 29 MAY 1500. A SHIPWRECK FOUND IN 2008 BY THE NAMDEB DIAMOND CORPORATION OFF NAMIBIAWAS AT
FIRST THOUGHT TO BE DIAS' SHIP;[7] HOWEVER, RECOVERED COINS COME
FROM A LATER TIME.[8]
PERSONAL LIFE[EDIT]
BARTOLOMEU DIAS WAS MARRIED AND HAD TWO CHILDREN:
?SIM?O DIAS DE NOVAIS, WHO DIED UNMARRIED AND WITHOUT ISSUE.?ANTóNIO DIAS DE NOVAIS, A KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF CHRIST,
MARRIED TO (APPARENTLY HIS RELATIVE, SINCE THE SURNAME NOVAIS WAS
TRANSMITTED THROUGH HER BROTHER'S OFFSPRING) JOANA FERNANDES,
DAUGHTER OF FERN?O PIRES AND WIFE GUIOMAR MONTêS (AND SISTER OF
BRITES FERNANDES AND FERN?O PIRES, MARRIED TO INêS NOGUEIRA,
DAUGHTER OF JORGE NOGUEIRA AND WIFE, AND HAD ISSUE). DIAS'
GRANDSON PAULO DIAS DE NOVAIS WAS A PORTUGUESE COLONISER OF
AFRICA IN THE 16TH CENTURY. DIAS' GRANDDAUGHTER, GUIOMAR DE
NOVAIS MARRIED TWICE, AS HIS SECOND WIFE TO DOM RODRIGO DE
CASTRO, SON OF DOM NUNO DE CASTRO AND WIFE JOANA DA SILVEIRA, BY
WHOM SHE HAD DONA PAULA DE NOVAIS AND DONA VIOLANTE DE CASTRO,
BOTH DIED UNMARRIED AND WITHOUT ISSUE, AND TO PEDRO CORREIA DA
SILVA, NATURAL SON OF CRISTóV?O CORREIA DA SILVA, WITHOUT ISSUE.
[CITATION NEEDED]
达伽伦
VASCO DA GAMA
FROM WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA
FOR OTHER USES, SEE VASCO DA GAMA (DISAMBIGUATION).
VASCO DA GAMA, 1ST COUNT OF VIDIGUEIRA (PORTUGUESE PRONUNCIATION: [?VA?KU D?
??M]??; C. 1460S – 24 DECEMBER 1524), WAS APORTUGUESE EXPLORER AND THE FIRST
EUROPEAN TO REACH INDIA BY SEA. HIS INITIAL VOYAGE TO INDIA (1497–1499) WAS THE FIRST TO LINK EUROPE AND ASIA BY AN OCEAN ROUTE, CONNECTING THE ATLANTIC AND
THE INDIAN OCEANS AND, IN THIS WAY, THE WEST AND THE ORIENT.
DA GAMA'S DISCOVERY OF THE SEA ROUTE TO INDIA WAS SIGNIFICANT AND OPENED THE WAY FOR AN AGE OF GLOBAL IMPERIALISM AND FOR THE PORTUGUESE TO ESTABLISH A LONG-LASTING COLONIAL EMPIRE IN ASIA. TRAVELING THE OCEAN ROUTE ALLOWED THE PORTUGUESE TO AVOID SAILING ACROSS THE HIGHLY DISPUTED MEDITERRANEAN AND
TRAVERSING THE DANGEROUS ARABIAN PENINSULA. THE SUM OF THE DISTANCES COVERED IN THE OUTWARD AND RETURN VOYAGES MADE THIS EXPEDITION THE LONGEST OCEAN VOYAGE EVER MADE UNTIL THEN, FAR LONGER THAN A FULL VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD BY WAY OF THE EQUATOR.[1]
AFTER DECADES OF SAILORS TRYING TO REACH THE INDIES, WITH THOUSANDS OF LIVES AND DOZENS OF VESSELS LOST IN SHIPWRECKS AND ATTACKS, DA GAMA LANDED IN CALICUT ON
20 MAY 1498. UNOPPOSED ACCESS TO THE INDIAN SPICE ROUTES BOOSTED THE ECONOMY OF
THE PORTUGUESE EMPIRE, WHICH WAS PREVIOUSLY BASED ALONG NORTHERN AND COASTAL WEST AFRICA. THE SPICES OBTAINED FROM SOUTHEAST ASIA WERE
PRIMARILY PEPPER AND CINNAMON AT FIRST, BUT SOON INCLUDED OTHER PRODUCTS, ALL NEW TO EUROPE. PORTUGAL MAINTAINED A COMMERCIAL MONOPOLY OF THESE COMMODITIES FOR SEVERAL DECADES. IT WOULD BE A CENTURY LATER BEFORE OTHER EUROPEAN POWERS SUCH AS THE NETHERLANDS AND ENGLAND, FOLLOWED
BY FRANCE AND DENMARK, WERE ABLE TO CHALLENGE PORTUGAL'S MONOPOLY AND NAVAL SUPREMACY IN THE CAPE ROUTE.
DA GAMA LED TWO OF THE PORTUGUESE ARMADAS DESTINED FOR INDIA, THE FIRST AND
THE FOURTH. THE LATTER WAS THE LARGEST AND DEPARTED FOR INDIA FOUR YEARS AFTER HIS RETURN FROM THE FIRST ONE. FOR HIS CONTRIBUTIONS, DA GAMA WAS APPOINTED THEGOVERNOR OF INDIA IN 1524, UNDER THE TITLE OF VICEROY, AND GIVEN THE NEWLY
CREATED COUNTY OF VIDIGUEIRA IN 1519. VASCO DA GAMA REMAINS A LEADING FIGURE IN THE HISTORY OF EXPLORATION. NUMEROUS HOMAGES HAVE BEEN MADE WORLDWIDE TO CELEBRATE HIS EXPLORATIONS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS. THE PORTUGUESE NATIONAL EPIC, OS LUSíADAS, WAS WRITTEN IN HIS HONOUR. HIS FIRST TRIP TO INDIA IS WIDELY CONSIDERED A MILESTONE IN WORLD HISTORY, AS IT MARKED THE BEGINNING OF A SEA-BASED PHASE OF GLOBAL MULTICULTURALISM.[2]
IN MARCH 2016, RESEARCHERS ANNOUNCED THAT THOUSANDS OF ARTIFACTS AND VESSEL REMAINS HAD BEEN RECOVERED FROM THE SHIPESMERALDA, ONE OF DA GAMA'S ARMADA,
FOUND OFF THE COAST OF OMAN. [3]
麦哲伦
FOR THE EPONYMOUS RAILCAR, SEE FERDINAND MAGELLAN (RAILCAR).
FERDINAND MAGELLAN (/M??LN/??ɡ[1] OR /M?D??LN/??;
[2] PORTUGUESE: FERN?O DE MAGALH?ES, IPA: [F??NW D? M??????J?]????????;
SPANISH:FERNANDO DE MAGALLANES, IPA: [FER?NANDO DE MA?A?ANES]?; C.
1480 – 27 APRIL 1521) WAS A PORTUGUESE EXPLORER WHO ORGANISED
THE CASTILIAN ('SPANISH') EXPEDITION TO THE EAST INDIES FROM 1519 TO
1522, RESULTING IN THE FIRSTCIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH, COMPLETED
BY JUAN SEBASTIáN ELCANO.
BORN INTO A PORTUGUESE NOBLE FAMILY IN AROUND 1480, MAGELLAN BECAME A SKILLED SAILOR AND NAVAL OFFICER AND WAS EVENTUALLY SELECTED BY KING CHARLES I OF SPAIN TO SEARCH FOR A WESTWARD ROUTE TO
THE MALUKU ISLANDS (THE "SPICE ISLANDS"). COMMANDING A FLEET OF FIVE VESSELS, HE HEADED SOUTH THROUGH THE ATLANTIC OCEAN TO PATAGONIA, PASSING THROUGH THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN INTO A BODY OF WATER HE
NAMED THE "PEACEFUL SEA" (THE MODERN PACIFIC OCEAN). DESPITE A
SERIES OF STORMS AND MUTINIES, THE EXPEDITION REACHED THE SPICE ISLANDS IN 1521 AND RETURNED HOME VIA THE INDIAN OCEAN TO COMPLETE
THE FIRST CIRCUIT OF THE GLOBE. MAGELLAN DID NOT COMPLETE THE ENTIRE VOYAGE, AS HE WAS KILLED DURING THE BATTLE OF MACTAN IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN 1521.
FERDINAND MAGELLAN, TRAVELING WEST FROM EUROPE, IN 1521, REACHED A REGION OF SOUTHEAST ASIA (THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO), WHICH HE HAD
REACHED ON PREVIOUS VOYAGES TRAVELING EAST (FROM 1505 TO 1511-1512). MAGELLAN THEREBY ACHIEVED A NEARLY COMPLETE PERSONAL CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE FOR THE FIRST TIME IN HISTORY. [3] [4]
THE MAGELLANIC PENGUIN IS NAMED AFTER HIM, AS HE WAS THE FIRST EUROPEAN TO NOTE IT.[5] MAGELLAN'S NAVIGATIONAL SKILLS HAVE ALSO BEEN ACKNOWLEDGED IN THE NAMING OF OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE STARS, INCLUDING THE MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, NOW KNOWN TO BE TWO
NEARBY DWARF GALAXIES; THE TWIN LUNAR CRATERS
OF MAGELHAENS AND MAGELHAENS A; AND THE MARTIAN CRATER OF
MAGELHAENS.[6]
FOR THE EPONYMOUS RAILCAR, SEE FERDINAND MAGELLAN (RAILCAR).
FERDINAND MAGELLAN (/M??LN/??ɡ[1] OR /M?D??LN/??;
[2] PORTUGUESE: FERN?O DE MAGALH?ES, IPA: [F??NW D? M??????J?]????????;
SPANISH:FERNANDO DE MAGALLANES, IPA: [FER?NANDO DE MA?A?ANES]?; C.
1480 – 27 APRIL 1521) WAS A PORTUGUESE EXPLORER WHO ORGANISED
THE CASTILIAN ('SPANISH') EXPEDITION TO THE EAST INDIES FROM 1519 TO
1522, RESULTING IN THE FIRSTCIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH, COMPLETED
BY JUAN SEBASTIáN ELCANO.
BORN INTO A PORTUGUESE NOBLE FAMILY IN AROUND 1480, MAGELLAN BECAME A SKILLED SAILOR AND NAVAL OFFICER AND WAS EVENTUALLY SELECTED BY KING CHARLES I OF SPAIN TO SEARCH FOR A WESTWARD ROUTE TO
THE MALUKU ISLANDS (THE "SPICE ISLANDS"). COMMANDING A FLEET OF FIVE VESSELS, HE HEADED SOUTH THROUGH THE ATLANTIC OCEAN TO PATAGONIA, PASSING THROUGH THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN INTO A BODY OF WATER HE
NAMED THE "PEACEFUL SEA" (THE MODERN PACIFIC OCEAN). DESPITE A
SERIES OF STORMS AND MUTINIES, THE EXPEDITION REACHED THE SPICE ISLANDS IN 1521 AND RETURNED HOME VIA THE INDIAN OCEAN TO COMPLETE
THE FIRST CIRCUIT OF THE GLOBE. MAGELLAN DID NOT COMPLETE THE ENTIRE VOYAGE, AS HE WAS KILLED DURING THE BATTLE OF MACTAN IN THE
PHILIPPINES IN 1521.
FERDINAND MAGELLAN, TRAVELING WEST FROM EUROPE, IN 1521, REACHED A REGION OF SOUTHEAST ASIA (THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO), WHICH HE HAD
REACHED ON PREVIOUS VOYAGES TRAVELING EAST (FROM 1505 TO 1511-1512). MAGELLAN THEREBY ACHIEVED A NEARLY COMPLETE PERSONAL
CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE FOR THE FIRST TIME IN HISTORY. [3] [4]
THE MAGELLANIC PENGUIN IS NAMED AFTER HIM, AS HE WAS THE FIRST EUROPEAN TO NOTE IT.[5] MAGELLAN'S NAVIGATIONAL SKILLS HAVE ALSO BEEN ACKNOWLEDGED IN THE NAMING OF OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE STARS, INCLUDING THE MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, NOW KNOWN TO BE TWO
NEARBY DWARF GALAXIES; THE TWIN LUNAR CRATERS
OF MAGELHAENS AND MAGELHAENS A; AND THE MARTIAN CRATER OF
MAGELHAENS.[6]
佩德伦?阿伦瓦雷斯?卡布拉伦
PEDRO áLVARES CABRAL
FROM WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA
PEDRO áLVARES CABRAL[A] (EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE: [?PEDU ?AVR(?)? K????
?ΒA]?? OR BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE: [?PEDU ?AWVAIS KA?BAW]???; C. 1467 OR 1468 – C. 1520) WAS A PORTUGUESE NOBLEMAN, MILITARY COMMANDER, NAVIGATOR AND EXPLORER REGARDED
AS THE DISCOVERER OF BRAZIL. CABRAL CONDUCTED THE FIRST SUBSTANTIAL
EXPLORATION OF THE NORTHEAST COAST OF SOUTH AMERICA AND CLAIMED IT FOR
PORTUGAL. WHILE DETAILS OF CABRAL'S EARLY LIFE ARE UNCLEAR, IT IS KNOWN THAT HE CAME FROM A MINOR NOBLE FAMILY AND RECEIVED A GOOD EDUCATION. HE WAS APPOINTED TO HEAD AN EXPEDITION TO INDIA IN 1500, FOLLOWING VASCO DA GAMA'SNEWLY OPENED
ROUTE AROUND AFRICA. THE OBJECT OF THE UNDERTAKING WAS TO RETURN WITH VALUABLE SPICES AND TO ESTABLISH TRADE RELATIONS IN INDIA—BYPASSING THE MONOPOLY ON THE SPICE TRADE THEN IN THE HANDS OF ARAB, TURKISH AND ITALIAN MERCHANTS. ALTHOUGH THE PREVIOUS EXPEDITION OF VASCO DA GAMA TO INDIA, ON ITS SEA ROUTE, RECORDED SIGNS OF LAND WEST OF THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC OCEAN (IN 1497),
CABRAL IS REGARDED AS THE FIRST CAPTAIN WHO EVER TOUCHED FOUR CONTINENTS, LEADING THE FIRST EXPEDITION THAT UNITED EUROPE, AFRICA, AMERICA, AND ASIA.[2]
HIS FLEET OF 13 SHIPS SAILED FAR INTO THE WESTERN ATLANTIC OCEAN, PERHAPS
INTENTIONALLY, WHERE HE MADE LANDFALL ON WHAT HE INITIALLY ASSUMED TO BE A LARGE ISLAND. AS THE NEW LAND WAS WITHIN THE PORTUGUESE SPHERE ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS, CABRAL CLAIMED IT FOR THE PORTUGUESE CROWN. HE EXPLORED THE COAST, REALIZING THAT THE LARGE LAND MASS WAS PROBABLY A CONTINENT, AND DISPATCHED A SHIP TO NOTIFY KING MANUEL I OF THE NEW TERRITORY.
THE CONTINENT WAS SOUTH AMERICA, AND THE LAND HE HAD CLAIMED FOR PORTUGAL LATER CAME TO BE KNOWN AS BRAZIL. THE FLEET REPROVISIONED AND THEN TURNED EASTWARD TO RESUME THE JOURNEY TO INDIA.
A STORM IN THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC CAUSED THE LOSS OF SEVERAL SHIPS, AND THE SIX REMAINING SHIPS EVENTUALLY RENDEZVOUSED IN THE MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL BEFORE
PROCEEDING TO CALICUT IN INDIA. CABRAL WAS ORIGINALLY SUCCESSFUL IN NEGOTIATING TRADING RIGHTS, BUT ARAB MERCHANTS SAW PORTUGAL'S VENTURE AS A THREAT TO THEIR MONOPOLY AND STIRRED UP AN ATTACK BY BOTH MUSLIMS AND HINDUS ON THE PORTUGUESE ENTREP?T. THE PORTUGUESE SUSTAINED MANY CASUALTIES AND THEIR FACILITIES WERE DESTROYED. CABRAL TOOK VENGEANCE BY LOOTING AND BURNING THE ARAB FLEET AND THEN BOMBARDED THE CITY IN RETALIATION FOR ITS RULER HAVING FAILED TO EXPLAIN THE UNEXPECTED ATTACK. FROM CALICUT THE EXPEDITION SAILED TO THE KINGDOM OF COCHIN, ANOTHER INDIAN CITY-STATE, WHERE CABRAL BEFRIENDED ITS
RULER AND LOADED HIS SHIPS WITH COVETED SPICES BEFORE RETURNING TO EUROPE. DESPITE THE LOSS OF HUMAN LIVES AND SHIPS, CABRAL'S VOYAGE WAS DEEMED A SUCCESS UPON HIS RETURN TO PORTUGAL. THE EXTRAORDINARY PROFITS RESULTING FROM THE SALE OF THE SPICES BOLSTERED THE PORTUGUESE CROWN'S FINANCES AND HELPED LAY THE FOUNDATION OF A PORTUGUESE EMPIRE THAT WOULD STRETCH FROM THE AMERICAS TO
THE FAR EAST.[B]
CABRAL WAS LATER PASSED OVER, POSSIBLY AS A RESULT OF A QUARREL WITH MANUEL I, WHEN A NEW FLEET WAS ASSEMBLED TO ESTABLISH A MORE ROBUST PRESENCE IN INDIA. HAVING LOST FAVOR WITH THE KING, HE RETIRED TO A PRIVATE LIFE OF WHICH FEW RECORDS SURVIVE. HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS SLIPPED MOSTLY INTO OBSCURITY FOR MORE THAN 300 YEARS. DECADES AFTER BRAZIL'S INDEPENDENCE FROM PORTUGAL IN THE 19TH CENTURY, CABRAL'S REPUTATION BEGAN TO BE REHABILITATED BY EMPEROR PEDRO II OF
BRAZIL. HISTORIANS HAVE LONG ARGUED WHETHER CABRAL WAS BRAZIL'S DISCOVERER, AND WHETHER THE DISCOVERY WAS ACCIDENTAL OR INTENTIONAL. THE FIRST QUESTION HAS BEEN SETTLED BY THE OBSERVATION THAT THE FEW, CURSORY ENCOUNTERS BY EXPLORERS BEFORE HIM WERE BARELY NOTICED AT THE TIME AND CONTRIBUTED NOTHING TO THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND HISTORY OF THE LAND WHICH WOULD BECOME BRAZIL, THE SOLE PORTUGUESE-SPEAKING NATION IN THE AMERICAS. ON THE SECOND QUESTION, NO DEFINITE CONSENSUS HAS BEEN FORMED, AND THE INTENTIONAL DISCOVERY HYPOTHESIS LACKS SOLID PROOF. NEVERTHELESS, ALTHOUGH HE WAS OVERSHADOWED BY CONTEMPORARY EXPLORERS, CABRAL TODAY IS REGARDED AS A MAJOR FIGURE OF THE AGE
OF DISCOVERY.
范文五：中国传统服饰(英文版) 高清扫描版下载
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《中国传统服饰色彩》(英文版)?本书
英文名：Chinese Fashions
作者:Ming Ju Sun
服装是一种身份地位的象征，一种符号，它代表个人的政治地位，和社会地位，使人人各守本份，不得僭越。因此，自古国君为政之道，服装是很重要的一项，服装制度得以完成，政治秩序也就完成了一部份。所以，在中国传统上，服装是政治的一部份，其重要性，远超出服装在现代社会的地位……
“中华人民共和国有超过4000年以上的确定的历史，而本书则选其中最近的将近1400年的服装历史来阐述，这其中包括六个时期：有五个主要朝代唐朝、宋朝、元朝、明朝、清朝和一个时期—民国时期，分别向我们展示了主要男装和女装的样式、细节和色彩等”
——摘自本书的出版前言
隋唐时期，虽然在最隆重的礼仪服装仍跟上传统，但是穿得最多的官式常服，却有了新面貌，闹到了后代服色制度的另一个传统。因此这是服饰史上的重要时代。隋唐时，一般人是穿白色圆领的长衫，低下阶层穿的是用麻、毛织成的「粗褐」。隋代女子穿窄合身的圆领或交领短衣，高腰拖地的长裙，腰上还系着两条飘带。唐代的女装主要是衫、裙和帔；帔就是披在肩上的长围巾。还有特别的短袖半臂衫，是套穿在长衫外面。唐代初期的妇女还喜欢穿徂领的小袖衣、条纹裤、绣鞋等西域式的服装，她们的头上还戴着「幂离」、「帷帽」。隋唐的女装，以红、紫、黄、绿四种颜色最受欢迎。
宋代的服装，其服色、服式多承袭唐代，只是与传统的溶合做得更好、更自然，给人的感觉是恢复中国的风格。宋朝时侯的服饰宋朝的男装大体上沿袭唐代样式，一般百姓多穿交领或圆领的长袍，做事的时候就把衣服往上塞在腰带上，衣服是黑白两种颜色。当时退休的官员、士大夫多穿一种叫做「直掇」的对襟长衫，袖子大大的，袖口、领口、衫角都镶有黑边，头上再戴一顶方桶形的帽子，叫做「东坡巾」。宋代的女装是上身穿窄袖短衣，下身穿长裙，通常在上衣外面再穿一件对襟的长袖小褙子，很像现在的背心，褙子的领口和前襟，都绣上漂亮的花边。
元代是由蒙古人统治，所以元代的服饰也比较特别。蒙古人多把额上的头发弄成一小绺，像个桃子，其他的就编成两条辫子，再绕成两个大环垂在耳朵后面，头上戴笠子帽。元代人的衣服主要是「质孙服」是较短的长袍，比较紧、比较窄，在腰部有很多衣褶，这种衣服很方便上马下马。元代的贵族妇女，常戴着一顶高高长长，看起来很奇怪的帽子，这种帽子叫做「罟罟冠」。她们穿的袍子，宽大而且长，走起路来很不方便，常常要两个婢女在后面帮她们拉着袍角，一般的平民妇女，多是穿黑色的袍子。
朱元璋统一天下，明代开始整体上大致恢复汉人衣冠，从唐代吸收了胡人习惯以后，发展出的汉人衣冠。明代的男装，大人多穿青布直身的宽大长衣，头上戴四方平定巾，一般平民穿短衣，裹头巾。这个时候出现了一种六瓣、八瓣布片缝合的小帽，看起来很像剖成半边的西瓜。本来是仆役所戴的，但是因为戴起来很方便，所以就普遍流行起来。这就是清代「瓜皮小帽」的前身。明代的贵妇多是穿红色大袖的袍子，一般妇女只能穿桃红、紫绿及一些浅淡的颜色。平日常穿的是短衫长裙，腰上系着绸带，裙子宽大，样式很多，像百褶裙、凤尾裙、月华裙等。
清朝是我国服装史上改变最大的一个时代，清代是个满汉文化交融的时代，尤其是服装文化，也是在进入中国后，保留原有服装传统最多的非汉族王朝。乾隆帝亦属好大喜功、浮慕好名之君，但他能清楚意识到，是承袭一套己涵在衣冠制度中的政沾理论，而不必是外观形式，方能传国长久。乾隆朝制定详细的冠服制度，并图示说明，以后子孙也能「永守勿愆」。清代的衣服长袍马褂，早先是富贵人家才穿的服饰，到后来普遍了，变成全国的一般服饰，平日所戴的便帽就是瓜皮小帽，颜色是外面黑，里面红。满族妇女穿的旗袍，早期是宽宽大大的，后来才变成了有腰身，在旗袍外面再加上一件「坎肩」（背心）。她们的鞋子也很特别，是一种花盆式的高底鞋。至于汉族妇女的服饰，则和明代差不多。
民国初年，妇女服饰与清末基本相同，不同者，由“独髻”发展为“趿落头”加网。废除缠足陋习，不再穿“竹靴”加“膝裤”，老妇穿青蓝色布鞋，年轻闺女和媳妇穿红鞋，特别是出嫁时，穿刺绣精巧的红绣鞋。上身仍穿二大袄，但逐步废去“狗牙边”，袖子仍然又宽又长，但不上挽袖。裤子仍为中式大裆裤，但“裤带’’已无“耍穗”。男剪辫，女放足。民国十年左右，政界人员知识阶层和开明人士以及学校学生多穿中山服，劳动者仍穿有襟袄、大裆裤。到民国二十年左右，中山服已普及到城乡居民，大部分商人穿袍褂。有的人是过年过节穿袍褂，平素穿中山服或有襟袄、大裆裤。
本书为英文原版书，但是文字绝少，几乎全是图片，所以，适合与大部分中国的读者。每页图下边的文字为介绍图片所表示的相应时期和简要说明。
本书提供给那些喜爱服装设计、喜欢研究历史、注重提高自身品位、对中国传统服饰（现在时兴的名词——汉服、唐装）感兴趣的人们，以及对本书感兴趣的人们。
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