大姨妈走了_
范文一：单十二烷基磷酸根离子柱撑MgAl水滑石的结构特征
土 木 工 程 学 报 Vol, 4444 第 卷增刊 CHINA CIVIL ENGINEERING JOURNAL 20112011 年
单试件法测定岩石强度参数的修正方法
刘保国崔少东
( 100044)，北京交通大学北京
: c ， 摘要分析单试件法测定岩石内聚力 和内摩擦角 υ 产生误差的原因提出一种对单试件法各级围压下获得的三
。c 轴试验强度的修正方法用泥岩试件分别在常规多试件和单试件法下的试验结果验证两种方法测定内聚力 和内
，。摩擦角 υ 存在的差异以及修正方法的有效性
: ; ; ; 关键词岩石强度参数单试件法修正方法
: TU459: A中图分类号文献标识码
: 1000-131X( 2011)S 1-0162-04文章编号
mpovemen of snge specmen method fo deemnaon ofIrtilirtriti
ock stength paametesrrrr
Liu Baoguo Cui Shaodong
( Beng Jaotong Unversty，Beng 100044，Chna) ijiiiiijii
Abstract: The erroneous reason etofer mdining rock cohesion and thea ngle of i nternal friction by single specimen method wasan alyzed, And the revised method oftria xial strength edtermined by single specimen method underiff edrent lateral presses wasp roposed, The difference between the two methodset etrom dine the cohesion and thea ngle of internal friction separately，as well as thev alidity of ther evised method，wasco nfirmed with the mudstone teresstu lt using the
conventional multi-specimen method and thesin gle specimen method,
Keywords: rock; strength parametserinsg; le specimen method; m odified method
E-mail: bgliu@ bjtu, edu, cn
，多级围压下强度的取值多数情况下是取每一级围压,9, ，下达到或接近最高峰的轴向应力为其强度但也有 引 言,10,，取每级围压下的长期强度进行计算的但不论哪种
-摩尔库伦强度准则是目前岩土工程中应用最广，，c、测取方法与常规多试件法相比计算得到的 υ 值总
，c 泛的强度准则其中的强度参数内聚力 和内摩擦角 。会有一定的误差本文重点分析误差产生的内在原
，5 :7 ，υ 的测定一般的做法是选择 个试样分别进行 ，，因提出一种校正其误差的方法并用泥岩试件对两
，不同围压下的三轴压缩试验利用不同围压下获得的 。种试验方法下的结果进行初步验证
M-C c、，三轴强度拟合 方程得到 υ 值这种测岩石强度
，参数的方法称之为常规多试件法这一方法已被写入 ,1-5,。多部国家和行业标准以及相关书籍对于天然岩 1 单试件法原理及误差分析，，石来说一方面难以取得足够的均匀试样另一方面
，试样的离散性较大在此情况下采用常规多试件法求 单试件法即通过一个试件在试验过程中改变围c、。得的 φ 值有较大误差单试件法是利用一个试件 ，，压测得相应的三轴强度从而获得若干组使得试件 在连续试验过程的不同阶段改变围压测定其三轴强 ( ，) ，M-C 达到屈服破坏的应力组合点σσ然后用 准 1i 3i ，M-C c、，20 度然后拟合 方程计算出 υ 值该方法在 世 c、。: 则拟合试验数据求得强度参数 υ其试验过程是80 ，纪 年 代 被 提 出至 今 对 其 研究和应用成果并不 ，按常规三轴试验将试件安装到三轴室稍施加一点轴 ,6-8,，，多也没有一个统一的标准主要表现在单试件在 ，，，压然后施加第一级围压 σ保持围压不变施加第 31
( 一次轴压直到接近应力应变曲线的最高峰即应力应
0 ) ，变曲线 的 斜 率 接 近 于 停 止 加 载记 录 下 此 时 的 ，，σ然后增加围压到第二级 σ再施加第二次轴压 11 32 作者简介: 刘保国，博士，教授
: 2011-02-22收稿日期
，，时的 σ以此类推即可获得若干组不同围压下的三，，， 生内聚力已被克服或部分克服在围压 σ作用下 12 32
。1 。'(, ) 轴强度典型的试验曲线如图 所示'轴压加到 σσ试件即达到了破坏极限状σ 12 12 12
，3 ，，态如图 中状态?摩尔圆因此采用单试件法得到
3 ，，的强度包络线不是图 中的虚线而是实线很明显看
，c ，出采用单试件法得到的强度参数内聚力 偏大内摩
。擦角 υ 偏小
1 图 单试件法典型试验曲线
Fig, 1 The carve of single specimen method
单试件法的优点是大大减少了试验的时间和工
，。作量避免了多试件带来的离散性并且整个试验过
c、。程中材料的内聚力 内摩擦角 υ 保持定值实际上
，，在每一级围压下加轴压至接近最高峰试件已经产
，生了细观甚至宏观的破坏其强度随着围压次数的增
，，加在逐渐减小即除第一次围压外之后的每一级围
压下测得的三轴强度均小于同等围压下原始试件的
，c、三轴强度这也是采用单试件法测定 υ 值产生误差
。。的原因以下从试件内部应力状态作具体分析
2( a) ，I ，如图 所示试件在第 级围压 σ作用下施 31
，加轴向力 σ至接近破坏的极限状态破坏面的倾角 11
= ( 45? + /2) 。 为 α υ 此时破坏面上的法向力 σ和 ?
:切向力 τ分别为 ?
1 1 =+( 1)( + ) ( ) ) cos2σσσσσα? 11 31 11 31 2 2
1 =( 2)( ) ) sin2τσσα? 11 31 2 M-C ，根据 准则有以下关系成立 = c + tanτσυ ? ? ( 3) 2单试件法的修正方法 3 。，用摩尔圆表示如图 状态?在状态?基础上
，，先保持轴压不变施加围压到 σ然后施加轴压 σ32 12 ，，4以施加两级围压为例单试件法修正原理如图 2 ( b) ，，使得试件再次达到破坏极限状态如图 所示此 。所示图中的虚线表示岩石试件在不同的围压 σ31、 :时破坏面上的法向力 σ和切向力 τ分别为 ? ? -( σ作用下常规三轴下的轴向应力应变曲线 σ， 32 31
1 1 ) ，C D ，和 分别是曲线强度的峰值点相对应的 σσ32 C ( 4)=( + ) +( ) ) cos2σσσσσα? 12 32 12 32 2 2 ，和 σ为在围压 σσ作用下的峰值强度实线表示 D 31、32
1 =( 5)( ) ) sin2τσσα? 12 32 、 - 2 单试件法在两级围压 σ σ 作用下的轴向应力应变 31 32
。 ，曲线对应的抗压强度分别为 σ和 σ 若在第一级围压下加载到破坏极限状态试件的c d
c、:，υ 值保持不变则有以下关系式成立 ，单试件法试验中轴向载荷在围压 σ作用下加 31
= c + tan( 6)C ，，τσυ载到 点时岩石试件已经达到或接近抗压强度岩 ? ?
，3 。，石内部的应力状态处于接近强度屈服面上内部的微用摩尔圆表示如图 虚线所示状态?实际上
164??2011 土 木 工程 学 报年
，，C裂纹得到了充分发育破裂面已经基本形成此时
。点的应变为 ε岩石的弹性模量随着围压的增大而 C
，E增大在 σ和 σ作用下的弹性模量分别为 和 31 32 31
E，E,E 。可知 在 σ作用下应变达到 ε后的强 32 31 32 31 C
，度值为 σ而常规三轴试验中在 σ作用下达到应变 C 32
，F ，F ε时和全应力应变曲线上的 点相对应点的应 C
，。，力为 ， 单试件法试验中在施加第二级围 σσσF C F
，压 σ后由于围压增大使岩石内部的应力状态发生 32
，，，改变又落在了屈服面内岩石强度随应变继续增大
但单试件法第二级围压下的应力应变曲线是从常规
F 三轴试验中 σ单独作用下应力应变曲线的 点开始 32 ，d ，的应力应变曲线到达峰值 点后岩石试件的强度 5 图 泥岩单试件法强度，σ小于常规三轴试验中在 σ单独作用下的 σ这样 d 32 D Fig, 5 Stength of mudstone fom single-specimen methodrr，得到的强度 σ比 σ就小了 Δσ因而根据摩尔库伦 d D
c ，。准则单试件法测出来的 值偏大υ 值偏小 1 M-C ，利用表 数据拟合由主应力表达的 准则即 σ 1 4 :根据图 可知= + ， ξσ σ 可以得到两种方法下的拟合方程和在主应 3 c
: 7 。力坐标下的曲线如图 所示进一步计算表明单试件
c ，。法得到的泥岩内聚力 值偏大内摩擦角 υ 值偏小
1 表 规方法和单试件法实测强度对比) ( 7)= EΔσ εσ 32 c c Table 1 Compaison of stength fom conventional methodrrr' : 进而可以得到考虑损伤的 σd and single-specimen method ( 8) ' = + Δσσσd d 围压( MPa)常规法实测强度( MPa)单试件法实测强度( MPa) 。同理可以修正单试件法中各级围压下的强度值
541, 0938, 8
1060, 5956, 01
1587, 0978, 24
4 图 单试件修正原理
Fig, 4 Modified principle of single-specimen method
3 修正方法的试验验证
，为了验证上述修正方法的可行性对泥岩试件在
5MPa、10MPa 15MPa 围压 和 情况下分别进行多试件
，，和单试件试验试验采用轴向应变控制应变速率为 ) 5 1 × 10 / s，5 。单试件试验曲线如图 所示
通过上述试验可得到不同围压下两种方法给出
，1。的泥岩三轴试验强度见表 可以看出每级围压下
，单试件法测得的强度均比多试件法测得的强度低将
各级围压下两种方法测得强度的差值和围压的关系
6，6 ，绘于图 从图 可以看出随着围压的增大它们之间
，,4-5,。的差值也变大这一现象在文献也有类似描述
5，10MPa 15MPa ，曲线图 取围压 和 应力应变曲线段的试验说明了两种方法测定岩石内聚力和内摩擦角存
，在的误差及误差的趋向规律初步验证了修正方法的 ，5 : 割线模量作为该阶段泥岩的弹性模量由图 可得围 。有效性 5MPa = 33, 8MPa，压 的峰值点的应力 σ相应的应变 5
0, 0081; 10MPa = 4, 44GPa，E为 围压 的弹性模量 峰 10 参 考 文 献 = 48, 01MPa，0, 0118; 值点的应力为 σ相应应变为 围 10
,1,GB / T 50266—99 ,S,, : 工程岩体试验方法标准北京中 15MPa 4, 66GPa，E= 压 的 弹 性 模 量 峰 值 应 力 15，1999 ( GB / T 50266—99 Standard tefostrs 国计划出版社63, 24MPa。( 9) 、( 10 ) 将以上各值代入式式计算可得
method of n geineering rock massas ,S,, Beijing: China 2 ，修正的单试件法在各级围压下的强度值如表 所示Planning Press，1999in( Chinese) ) 3 。各个方法得到该泥岩的强度参数如表 所示 SL 264—2001 ,S,, : 水利水电工程岩石试验规程北京 2,,2、3 ，从表 表 中看出单试件法的实测泥岩强度参 ，2001( SL 264—2001S pecfcatons iii中国水利水电出版社，c 9, 15% ，数和常规多试件法相比值增大了 υ 值降低 for rock testsin water conservancy hy,dro electricity
9, 38% ，了 修正的单试件法和常规多试件法测得的泥 engineering,S,, Beijing: China WaterPowePr ress，2001
( in Chinese) ) c、，岩强度参数 υ 值非常接近表明修正的单试件法能
, 中华人民共和国地质矿产部岩石物理力学性质试验 c、。够较好地替代多试件法来测定 υ 值
,S,, : ，1995北京地质出版社 2 表 不同试验方法泥岩强度 规程 ,3,, Table 2 Strength of mudstone from 中华人民共和国煤炭工业部煤与岩石物理力学性质
,S,, : ，1988diffeent expeimental methods rr北京中国标准出版社 测定方法 ,4,，，，, 朱思哲刘虔包承纲等三轴试验原理与应用技术
,5, 常规方法强度单试件法强度修正的单试件法 ( MPa)围压( MPa)( MPa) ( MPa) 强度 ,M,, : ，2003北京中国电力出版社
,6,，, ———541, 0938, 838, 8吴玉山李纪鼎确定岩石强度包络线的新方法单
,J,, ，1985，7( 2) :8 5-91 ，块法岩土工程学报闫明礼杨10 60, 59 56, 01 60, 17
, ,J,, ，单试件测定强度指标的试验研究港口工程志红15 87, 09 78, 24 85, 22 ,7, 1991，( 2) ，13-19
，, 崔中新宋克强单试件法确定岩石软弱结构面抗剪强 ,8,,J,, ，1994，5 ( 3) 2: 3-31 西北水资源与水工程 3 度的研究表 不同试验方法泥岩强度参数
( Cui Zhongxn，Song eqang, Study on thate tdermng to iKii Table 3Strength parameters of mudstone from
shears intensity parametero bjectivity of rocks ’’dffeen expemena mehods irtritlt weakress tsructural surfaceb y method osfi ngular sample 强度参数常规方法单试件法 修正的单试件法 ,J,, Water Resources and WateEr ng ineering，1994，5
c( MPa)4, 645, 134, 54( 3 ) :2 3-31 ( in Chnese) ) i
，, 苏承东尤明庆单一试样确定大理岩和砂岩强度参数 ( ? ) 38 , 95 35 , 74 38 , 56 υ
,J,, ，2004，23( 18) 305: 5-岩石力学与工程学报 的方法 ,9,3058( Su hCengdong，You Mingqing, Determination method 4 结论 of strength parameters for sandstone aanrblde wmith one ( 1) 分析了单试件法测定岩石内聚力和内摩擦角 spacimen,J,, Chinese Journal of Rock M echanics and
，产生误差的内在原因指出单试件试验过程中除第一 ，Engineering，2004，23( 18) 305: 5-3058in( Chinese) ) 张磊，级围压外后续各级围压下的三轴强度均受到前一级 ，, 王宝学杨同岩石三轴多级围压加载试验方法 与数据
,J,, ，2008，，实验技术与管理 围压下试件损伤的影响实际测得的强度小于未损伤 统计分析的研究
25( 2) : 43-47 ( ZhanLei，gW ang Baoxue，YangT ong, The ，c 试件在同等围压下的强度致使计算得到的内聚力 ,10,research of rock triaxial compression with multilevel 、。偏大内摩擦角 υ 偏小 confnng pressure and the dasttaat stcs,J,, Expermentaiiiiil ( 2) 基于对单试件法测定岩石内聚力和内摩擦角 Technology and Management，2008，225 ) :( 43-47 in ( ，: 产生误差的原因分析提出一种修正方法即用当期围 Chinese) )
压下的弹性模量乘以前一级围压下峰值点处应变与前
。一级峰值强度的差来修正当期围压下的峰值强度
( 1964-)， ，，。( ) 、。刘保国男博士教授主要从事岩石岩体力学特性隧道与地下工程方面的研究
( 1979-)， ，，。。崔少东男博士工程师主要从事岩石地下工程方面的研究
范文二：和田玉的结构特征有哪些？为什么和田玉那么贵？
保真文玩,木缘鸿实体经营更放心,点击访问:木缘鸿官网 和田玉的结构特征有哪些,为什么和田玉那么贵,和田玉主要结构有以下6种: 如何挑选和田玉，才不会交学费,点击访问:木缘鸿官网
1、毛毡状隐晶质变晶结构:这是和田玉最典型的一种结构(图版I-1)，表现为:透闪石颗粒非常细微，粒度在光学显微镜下无法分清其轮廓，大小均一，交织成毛毡状。具有该结构的和田玉表现为细润而且致密，是优质和田玉所具备的特性。该结构在白玉、青白玉、青玉、墨玉中均可见到，与和田玉质地紧密相关;
2、显微纤维一隐晶质变晶结构:指由纤维状透闪石和隐晶质透闪石组成的结构，其中纤维状透闪石呈弱定向排列;
3、显微纤维变晶结构:透闪石多呈纤维状聚集，大致平行分布;
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4、显微片状隐晶质变晶结构:指主要由片状透闪石和隐晶质透闪石组成的结构(图版I-2)，其中片状透闪石的含量不高，具有弱定向性。肉眼观察手标本时，片状透闪石表现为斑点状杂质;若大量存在，则会影响玉石的质量，在琢磨时需要剔除，故具有该结构的玉石质地一般较差;
5、显微片状变晶结构:透闪石颗粒呈叶片状分布(图版I-3)，具有该结构的玉石质地一般较粗，甚至无经济价值;
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6、放射状或帚状变晶结构:该结构在和田玉中较少(图版I-4)，是纤维变晶结构的另一种表现形式，表现为透闪石纤维颗粒聚集成帚状，并伴有微弱的波状消光现象。推断可能是在气水溶液热变质的条件下，透闪石围绕中心强烈向四周急速生长，结晶成放射状。
和田玉还具有下列不常见的交代残余结构:
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1、残缕结构:包裹在变斑晶或变晶透闪石中的残余矿物(图版I-5)，与基质中同种残余矿物沿变余层理内外断续相连。这种结构表明，在变斑晶或变质矿物原地重结晶末完全吸收和排除掉原岩相应组分、而在应力不强、反应不充分的环境下形成，它为我们分析和田玉变质作用环境及条件提供了有效的证据;
2、交代冠状结构:表现为片状透闪石沿被交代的白云石残骸的晶体边缘有规律的排布(图版I-6)，证明了白云石在含热水溶液的参与下，在晶体粒间经过交代作用形成软王，即白云石+SiO 2+H20(汽)+透闪石。
怕上当受骗，我们教你如何鉴别和田玉的真伪～点击访问:木缘鸿官网
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朋友圈文玩知识分享
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凤祥’、‘老庙黄金’等等。经过我们平台检验是值得信赖的。木缘鸿是从传统艺术品行业升级到互联网的保真艺术品文玩平台,同时也是以原材料采购,生产,推广,销售为一体的综合性平台 。保真方面绝对没问题,由于是从源头把控,很多市面上看不到的精品,却在木缘鸿能够找到。
范文三：复合肥筛有哪些结构特征与运行特点
筛分设备是复合肥生产中尤为重要的设备，其运行效果对复合肥的连续稳定运行、生产能力和颗粒均匀度有较大影响。
一、结构特征
振动源采用普通电机带动偏心块激振器代替传统的振动电机，克服了振动电机易烧坏的问题，大大提高了设备的运转周期。
筛体联接采用铆钉联接结构，而传统的大多采用焊接结构，避免了焊接应力集中对筛体结构的影响，提高了筛体的强度质量。
激振器设置在筛体的两个筛帮上，受力合理，减少了对筛体结构的不良影响。 激振器设置在筛体的下方，便于清理检修筛网。
筛网采用304不锈钢编织网或不锈钢条缝筛网，筛网可根据用户要求设置为分块组对，便于清理更换，同时也减少了运行费用。
减振弹簧采用优质的橡胶减振器代替传统的金属钢簧，减少对基础及设备的不良冲击和振动破坏。
二、运行特点
该系列矿筛研制投产以来，在复合肥、化肥以及其它行业已有近百台投入运行，由于采用以上合理新型结构，其凸现出明显的运行特点:
设备的振动振幅可高于传统的振动电机型50-100%，显著地提高了筛分设备的筛分效率和筛分能力。
普通电机不参振，大大提高了电机的使用寿命。
合理的激振器设置方式和筛体结构，提高了筛体的强度、刚性和抗激振能力，避免了焊接筛体结构易出现的断裂现象，提高了筛体的使用寿命。
合理的筛面结构，便于清理、检修和更换，减轻工人的劳动强度，同时也便于密封，减少粉尘外泄对环境的影响和原料损耗。
新型的减振装置，设备运行平衡、噪音小，同时对基础的冲击小。
0c50f3e 矿筛www.xxsfw.net
范文四：棱柱的结构特征
课题
棱柱的结构特征
课型
新授课
教 学 目 标
1. 知识与技能目标： 认识和了解多面体及棱柱的结构特征，掌握其定义和 性质。 2. 过程与方法目标：在教学过程通过大量的电脑演示，归纳多面体和棱柱的 结构特征和主要特征性质，培养学生的几何直观和空间想象能力 3. 情感态度与价值观目标： 通过电脑演示，体现一种几何体的数学直观美， 在数学与实际问题的密切联系中，激发学生的学习欲望和探究精神，在课 堂学习中，学生既有独立思考，又有合作讨论，有意识、有目的的培养学 生自主学习的良好习惯以及协作共进的团队精神 重点： 多面体和棱柱的定义和性质 难点： 几种概念相近的棱柱的特征性质的区别 “问题探究式”教学法 多媒体课件演示 教学内容 1、 从运动的观点看，点、线、面之间是怎样的关系？ 2、 从运动的观点看，长方体是怎样运动得来的？ 观察下列几何体，我们把这些几何体称作多面体，思 考：多面体的哪些性质可以作为它们的特征性质？ 师生互动 教师提问， 学生回 答，互相补充 教师演示课件， 提出问题， 学生观 察课件， 先思考然 后互相讨论， 互相 补充， 得出多面体 的特征性质
教学重点 和难点 教学方法 教学手段 教学环节 复习引入 新授
C B D C' A B' D'
A'
多面体的结构特征： 多面体是由若干个平面多边形所围成 的几何体。 问题 1：观察下列几何体，哪些是多面体。 问题 1 加深学 生对多面体概念 的理解
1、 多面体的有关概念：多面体的面、棱、顶点、对角线 2、 多面体的分类 (1) 凸多面体 (2) 按围成多面体的面的个数分为：四面体、五面体、六 面体… 3、 截面 提出问题： 从运动的观点来看棱柱是怎样形成的？棱 柱具有哪些特征性质？ 从运动的观点来看，棱柱可以看成一个多边形（包括 图形围成的平面部分） 上各点都沿着同一个方向移动相同 的距离所形成的几何体。 棱柱的主要特征性质：棱柱有两个面互相平行，而其
教师演示课 件， 学生观察课件 结合长方体的运 动形成过程， 总结 归纳棱柱的形成 过程及其特征性 质。
每相邻两个面的交线都互相平行。 棱柱的有关概念： （1） 底面、侧面、侧棱、高 （2） 棱柱的记法 （3） 棱柱的分类 （4） 正棱柱 （5） 特殊的四棱柱 提出问题：斜棱柱、直棱柱和正棱柱的底面、侧面各有什 么特点？ 练习 1：判断题 （1）棱柱的侧棱就是棱柱的高 （2）直棱柱的侧面及经过不相邻的两条侧棱的截面是矩 形 (3)底面是正方形的棱柱是正棱柱 (4)平行六面体是四棱柱 (5)直四棱柱是长方体 (6)各棱长都相等的四棱柱是正方体 练习 2: 填空,在“”处填
写一个使下列推出关系成立 的条件。 (1) (2) (3) 斜四棱柱 直四棱柱 直平行六面体 (4) (5) 长方体 正四棱柱 正方体 (1)____________ (2)______________ (3)____________ (4)______________ ______ (5)____________ 小结：演示电脑课件，学生概括总结多面体和棱柱的定义 和性质。 作业：1、课本 P8 练习 A，课本 P9 页练习 B 2、 思考题： 正方体的截面形状都可能是什么图形？
教师演示课件， 学生观察指出各 类棱柱的特征， 并 总结它们之间的 关系。 学生先思考 后回答， 主要加深 对各种概念的理 解和深化。
教师演示课件， 学生归纳小结。 学生课后巩固 所学知识。
范文五：语言的结构特征
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1.1 Why study language?
A tool for communication
An integral part of our life and humanity
If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
1.2 What is language?
1.2.1 Different senses of language
what a person says( concrete act of speech)
a person?s consistent way of speaking or writing
a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language
an abstract system
1.2.2 Definitions
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
What is communication?
A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).
A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be
arranged at will.
e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)
Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and
its meaning.
Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas
by convention.
Vocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well
developed their writing systems are.
Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.
People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific.
Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.
“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)
1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征
Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their
meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.
E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)
Mansion (French)
房子(Chinese)
conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of
sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are
customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood
by all listeners in the same way.
There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection
between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them,
the sets of signals used in communication is finite.
b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the
level of sounds and that of meaning.
the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and
regrouped into words.
Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )
This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since
with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of
sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.
The principle of economy
c. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and
interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are
continually being created.)
non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility. e.g. an experiment of bee communication:
The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of
a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new?.
In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a
radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken
to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee
dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They
flow around in all directions, but couldn?t locate the food. The
problem may be that bee communication regarding location
has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal
distance. The bee cannot create a ?new ? message indicating
vertical distance.
d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events
and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.
Bee communication:
When a worker bee finds a source of nectar(花蜜) and returns to the
hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to
the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging(高速旋转) dance, with
variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work out where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee
communication has displacement in an extremely limited form.
However, it must be the most recent food source.
e. Cultural transmission----genetic(遗传的，基因的) transmission: Language is
passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct(本能). This is not to deny that human capacity for language has a genetic(遗
传的) basis; In fact only human beings can learn a human language at birth and he has to be exposed to language in order to acquire it.
You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental
genes.
The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is
described as cultural transmission.
f. Interchangeability: (互换性)
Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.
1.5 Functions of Language
Linguists talk about the functions of language in abstract sense. They summarize these practical functions.
i. Jakobson’s classification:
1. referential 2. poetic 3. emotive (感情的) 4. conative (意动的) 5. phatic
6. metalingual function.
ii. Halliday’s classification:
1. ideational function (6 processes. See reference on page 154)
2. interpersonal function (mood structure)
3. textual function (theme-rheme structure)
iii. The author’s classification.
1. informative function: language is used to keep and convey information.
It is equal to Halliday?s ideational function. Halliday notes that “ Language
serves for the expression of ?content?: that is, of the speaker?s experience of
the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness…In
serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps
to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual
effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to
us.”
2. interpersonal function: It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and
the addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser?s attitude toward
what he speaks or writes about.”
3. performative function: language is used to do things. To see the examples on page
13.
4. Emotive function/expressive function: Language is used to express one?s feelings.
5. Phatic communion: (交感性谈话) Seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain
a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual
content.
6. recreational function: language is used for entertainment.
7. Metalingual function: language is used to explain or describe itself.
1.6 What is linguistics?
?The definition of linguistics.
Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language, which involves the investigation into all human languages. Linguists study the nature and structure of language in general, and of specific languages.
?Is linguistics a science?
Yes. It is a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.
?What is included in the study of linguistics?
The study of linguistics include the sound structure, lexicology, the syntax (how sentences are formed), semantics (the study of meaning), pragmatics (the study of language in context/use), applied linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The study interfaces with psychology, neurology, sociology, anthropology, and physics, etc. Linguists argue that it is possible to study language as a distinct cognitive system, abstracted from issues such as communication, aesthetics or persuasiveness. And their task is to investigate how languages are constructed, applied and related to each other.
?The goals of linguistics
The goals of linguistics are to understand:
a. What linguistic knowledge is;
b. How it is represented in the mind;
c. How the knowledge is acquired;
d. How the knowledge is perceived;
e. How the knowledge is applied;
f. How the knowledge relates to other aspects of cognition.
?Why do we study language?
1. language is valuable to the individual, so critical to the efficient functioning (运转)of 化每年
societies, and in itself so impressively intricate and profound in structure, that it is bound to attract a great amount of intellectual attention.
2. The studies of language have practical importance, such as, in speech therapy, education, techniques of translation, and many more “applied” concerns).
3. Linguistics is also a subject of theoretical importance, for one thing, structuralism originating from Saussure?s view has influenced many other related social sciences such as literary studies and social studies.
?Linguistics is empirical and speculative/intuitive. Both qualitative and quantitative research approaches are used.
Qualitative data (质量资料)are the data that are not in numerical form, such as a written account of what happened during a lesson or an interview. Data collected in qualitative form can often be
converted into quantitative form.
Quantitative data(数量资料)are the data that are in numerical form, obtained through counting and measurement(计算和度量). Quantitative data may be collected or derived from quantitative data.
Qualitative research (定性研究/质量研究)is the research which uses procedures (方法)that
make use of qualitative data, such as observations, interviews or participant observation(现场观
察).
Quantitative research is the research which uses procedures which gather data in numerical (数
量的)form.
Dependent variable(因变量) is the variable which changes or is influenced according to changes in one or more independent variables自变量. In empirical studies, one variable (the
independent variable) may be studied as a cause(起因)or predicator(预报因), and another
variable (the dependent variable) as the effect or result of the independent variable. For example, we may wish to study the effects of attitudes and motivation on language proficiency(语言水平).
Attitudes and motivation would be the independent variables, while language proficiency would be the dependent variable.
1.7 Major subfields of linguistics
Phonetics: The study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics), their physical properties (acoustic phonetics), and how they are perceived (auditory phonetics).
Phonology: The study of the sound system of language; how the particular sounds used in each language form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.
Morphology: The study of the ways in which words are constructed out of smaller units that have a meaning or grammatical function.
Semantics: The study of meaning; how words and sentences are related to the (real or imaginary) objects they refer to and the situations they describe.
Syntax: The study of the way in which sentences are constructed; How sentences are related to each other.
Pragmatics: The study of how the meaning conveyed by a word or sentence depends on aspects of the context in which it is used (such as time, place, social relationship between speaker and hearer, and speaker?s assumptions about hearer?s
beliefs).
1.8 Macrolinguistics
Applied linguistics: The application of the methods and results of linguistics to such areas as language teaching, national policies, lexicography, translation, language in politics, advertising, classrooms, and courts, and the like.
Psycholinguistics: The study of the interrelationship of language and cognitive structures; the acquisition of language.
Sociolinguistics: The study of the interrelationships of language and social structure, of linguistic variation, and of attitudes toward language.
Historical linguistics: The study of how language change through time and the
relationships among languages.
Neurolinguistics: The study of the brain and how it functions in the production, perception, and acquisition of language.
Anthropological linguistics: The study of the interrelationship between language and culture (particularly in the context of non0Western cultures and societies).
Computational linguistics is an interdiscipline field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural
language”, to distinguish it from computer language).
1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1 Descriptive (描述性研究)vs. prescriptive(规定性研究)
Descriptive study: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.
Prescriptive study: If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”
behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it
is said to be prescriptive.
Descriptive Prescriptive
Aim To describe how people speak and To teach people how to speak, read, write a
detail the underlying knowledge. particular language.
Distinction About how elements of language About how a language is used at a
work together and evolve over time; particular time and the rules that apply to
that usage;
Describing the systems that actually Seeking to develop, systematize and
exist rather than to correct them. enforce a language standard.
Question:
th1. In the 18 century, was linguistic study descriptive or prescriptive? 2. Generally speaking, what kind of study is the linguistic material(s) you have read? Give some
examples.
1.9.2 Synchronic(共时研究)vs. diachronic(历时研究)
This distinction is made by a Swiss linguist Saussure.
Saussure: Ferdinand de Saussure, Swiss linguist and expert in historical linguistics whose lectures laid the foundations for synchronic linguistics (1857-1913)
Synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history.
th century, the synchronic study of language has been further Since the beginning of the 20
emphasized.
Modern linguistics, following Ferdinand de Saussure, is primarily interested in the synchronic
point of view. Saussure assumed the priority of synchrony: No knowledge of the historical
development of a language is necessary to examine it present system. The fact that “beef” is an
Anglicization of a Middle French word that entered into English after the Norman Conquest is
completely unnecessary for understanding its use in contemporary speech. Diachronic study: the description of language as it changes through time. It studies the historical
development of language over a period of time.
Besides the term “diachronic linguistics”, we can have the term “historical linguistics”. Historical
linguistics is diachronic, “across time”. It inquires about and illustrates where languages arose, how they are interrelated and how they have changed over time.
thBefore the 20 century, English linguistics had a historical orientation, i.e. it examined the development of the language and its position within the Indo-European language family. Diachronic linguistics distinguishes four phases of English: Old English, Middle English, Early
Modern English and Present-day English (or Modern English).
Old English (449)
Middle English (1066)
Early Modern English (1500)
Present-day English (or Modern English) (today)
Question:
Is the grammar you have studied synchronic or diachronic? 世界七大语系
19世纪，欧洲的比较学派研究了世界上近一百种语言，发现有些语言的某些语音、词汇、
语法规则之间有对应关系，有些相似之处，他们便把这些语文归为一类，称为同族语言;由
于有的族与族之间又有些对应关系，又归在一起，称为同系语言，这就是所谓语言间的谱系
关系。现在，世界上主要的语系有七大类:
印欧语系
是最大的语系，下分印度、伊朗、日耳曼、拉丁、斯拉夫、波罗的海等语族。印度语族包括
梵语、印地语、巴利语等。伊朗语族包括波斯语、阿富汗语等。日耳曼语族包括英语、德语、
荷兰语、斯堪的纳维亚半岛各主要语言。拉丁语族包括法语、意大利语、西班牙语、葡萄牙
语和罗马尼亚语。斯拉夫语族有俄语、保加利亚语、波兰语。波罗的海语族包括拉脱维亚语
和立陶宛语。
汉藏语系 下分汉语和藏缅、壮侗、苗瑶等语族，包括汉语、藏语、缅甸语、克伦语、壮语、
苗语、瑶语等。
阿尔泰语系 下分西阿尔泰语族、东阿尔泰语族。前者包括突阙诸语言以及前苏联境内的楚
瓦什语，后者包
括蒙古语以及前苏联境内的埃文基语。
闪含语系 又称亚非语系。下分闪语族和含语族。前者包括希伯来语、阿拉伯语等，后者包
括古埃及语、豪萨语等。
德拉维达语系 又称达罗毗荼语系。印度南部的语言都属于这一语系，包括比哈尔语、泰卢
固语、泰米尔语、马拉亚兰语等。
高加索语系 这一语系的语言分布在高加索一带，主要的语言有格鲁吉亚语、车臣语等。
乌拉尔语系 下分芬兰语族和乌戈尔语族。前者包括芬兰语、爱沙尼亚语等，后者包括匈牙
利语、曼西语等。
此外还有一些语系，如非洲的尼日尔—刚果语系、沙里—尼罗语系、科依散语系，美洲的爱
斯基摩—阿留申语系以及一些印第安语系，大洋洲的马来—波利尼西亚语系和密克罗尼西亚
语系。需要指出的是，世界上有些语言，从谱系上看，不属于任何语系，如日语、朝鲜语等，
就是独立的语言。
1.9.3 Langue [lɑ:?g] (语言)and Parole [p?'r?ul](言语)
This distinction is also made by Saussure.
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. Below is the comparison between the two concepts:
Langue Parole
The shared social code (语码) and the The particular actualities of individual Definitio
abstract system including the utterances. n
underlying sets of linguistic Speech, the idiosyncratic(individual)
structures, patterns, principles or utterances made by individuals.
unstated rules upon which individuals
base their speech.
Characteristics It is neither behavioral nor It varies enormously (and which
observable, but conceptual and only individuals can creatively reorganize).
indirectly evident through analysis of It is actually observable.
observable behavior.
Part of It includes the lexicon, grammar, and Speech, writing and other observable
language phonology established in each linguistic behaviors carried out for
individual by his background in communication.
society and on the basis of which he
speaks and understands his language.
Comparing The rules, the piece of chess and the Actual games of chess.
with the chess board
game
Since we can communicate an infinite number of utterances in different circumstance, it is the system behind them that it is important. For Saussure, therefore, it is langue rather than parole that is more important and worthy of investigation. As a result, the object of linguistics, Saussure argues, must be language (langue) and not speech (parole). Thus in linguistics, while we may collect our data from actual instances of speech, our goal is to work back to the system of rules and words that organizes speech.
1.9.4 Competence (语言能力)and performance(语言应用)
This is made by Chomsky.
Competence refers to a language user?s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation.
Chomsky thinks that linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly. To put it simple, this distinction is between what people know and hwat they really do.
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