纵之影杯酒难续
逻辑语用学 ——指以元逻辑系统理论为基础，运用语用学思想和方法，研究公式与使用者以及使用者与公式所指之间的关系;寻求并建立沟通逻辑语形、语义、语用在自然语言逻辑系统中相互关联的语用描述系统及基本法则，是关于逻辑系统的一种使用理论。
逻辑语用学最突出的特征就是它处理符号化过程的生物性，这种生物性即公式语言作为交际言语，在不同语境中的变化的性质。
【元逻辑——即以形式化的逻辑系统为研究对象的一门逻辑学科。主要研究形式语言、形式系统和逻辑演算的语法、语义及二者关系。与逻辑刻画人们实际的、非形式化的思维过程不同，元逻辑研究逻辑本身的特征。元逻辑是在希尔伯特的元数学概念及其形式主义数学的启发下发展起来的。它所研究的问题中最重要的是有关逻辑系统的一致性问题、完全性问题、可判定性问题以及公理之间的独立性问题等。】
“语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则”。
英国著名语言学家利奇(Geoffrey N.Leech)指出:“对意义的讨论是否属于语用学的范围有下述几个明显的判断标准:(1981:320—321)
?是否考虑了说话人和听话人;
?是否考虑了说话人的意图或听话人的解释;
3是否考虑了语境; ?
?足否考虑了通过使用语言或依靠使用语言而实施的那种行为或行动。
如果对这些问题的回答有一个或一个以上是肯定的，就有理由认为我们是在讨论语用学”。我们认为，利奇提出的判断标准是切实有效的。
逻辑学词典中注释:
语义学(semantics)——指号学的一个分支。研究指号与指号所指谓的客观事物之间的关系的一门科学。语义学不同于语形学，语形学只关心表达式的形式，而不关心它们的意义。语义学对于交际过程中语词指号和意义之间的关系问题，则予以充分的考虑。
语形学(syntax)——指号学的一个分支。研究指号与指号之间的关系的一门科学。
语用学(pragmaLics)——指号学的一个分支。研究指号及其所指谓的事物与指号使用者之间的关系的科学。
语用学是比语形学、语义学更为年轻的学科。哲学家莫理斯最早在《指号理论基础》一书中提出三者在研究对象上的联系和区别，即:语形学研究有关指号与指号之间的关系;语义学研究有关指号与所指谓的事物之间的关系，语用学研究有关指号与指号使用者之间的关系。卡尔纳普则补充认为，语用学不仅应当研究指号的使用者和指导的关系，而且应当包括指号的所指。
邹崇理先生曾指出“所谓语言逻辑，就是自然语言的逻辑符号学。更具体说，自然语言逻辑就是关于
自然语言的逻辑语形学、逻辑语义学和逻辑语用学。”(注:邹崇理:《自然语言逻辑研究》，北京大学出版社2000年版，第7页。)这是一种较为宽泛的语言逻辑观。在这里“逻辑语用”是“语言逻辑”的一个种概念。
最后，王维贤等《语言逻辑引论》通过对国外有关文献的翔实分析考察后提出，国外语言逻辑研究具有以下几种趋势:(1)从对语言表面语形的分析逐渐深入到对语义的分析;(2)不仅注意语句本身的分析，而且注意对语言环境的分析，也就是涉及对语用的分析;(3)吸收了对形式语言分析的成果，用形式化的方法揭示了自然语言中一些不易觉察的逻辑问题;(4)从外延逻辑逐渐发展成内涵逻辑。《语言逻辑引论》对这一趋势的认识不乏前瞻性，虽然是对国外语言逻辑发展趋势的科学预测，亦同样适用于国内的研究大势，值得我们注意。
语用学的定义是
语用学的定义是,语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确的理解,寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确理解的基本原则和准则.从这个定义中,我们清楚地看到,话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解是在不同的语境中进行的.人们在言语交际中,离开语境,只通过言语形式本身说话人往往不能恰当地表达自己的意图.因为要准确地理解说话人的话语所传递的信息,仅理解言语形式的字面意义是不够的,还必须依据当时的语境推导出言语形式的言外之意.例如,暑假期间,一位好友来访,进入客厅后,他说:"这客厅里真热!"作为主人,如何理解这句话呢?回答:"是,这客厅里温度很高."这样来理解这句话符合说话人的意图吗,显然不符合说话人的意图。必须通过“这客厅里真热”这句话的字面意义，依据语境，推导出客人说这句话的真正意图，即打开空调或电扇。在言语交际中，语境对话语意义的恰当表达和准确地理解起着重要作用。因此，语用学应该重视语境研究语境 。
语用学定义和大题目
37. pragm?atics?: Pragm?atics? can be defin?ed as the study? of how speak?ers of a langu?age use sente?nces to effec?t succe?ssful? commu?nicat?ion.
38. Conte?xt: Gener?ally speak?ing, it consi?sts of the knowl?edge that is share?d by the speak?er and the heare?r. The share?d knowl?edge is of two types?: the knowl?edge of the langu?age they use, and the knowl?edge about? the world?, inclu?ding the gener?al knowl?edge about? the world? and the speci?fic knowl?edge about? the situa?tion in which? lingu?istic? commu?nicat?ion is takin?g place?. 39. utter?ance meani?ng: the meani?ng of an utter?ance is concr?ete, and conte?xt-depen?dent. Utter?ance is based? on sente?nce meani?ng; it is reali?zatio?n of the abstr?act meani?ng of a sente?nce in a real situa?tion of commu?nicat?ion, or simpl?y in a conte?xt.
40. sente?nce meani?ng: The meani?ng of a sente?nce is often? consi?dered? as the abstr?act, intri?nsic prope?rty of the sente?nce itsel?f in terms? of a predi?catio?n.
41. Const?ative?: Const?ative?s were state?ments? that eithe?r state? or descr?ibe, and were verif?iable? ; 42. Perfo?rmati?ve: perfo?rmati?ves, on the other? hand, were sente?nces that did not state? a fact or descr?ibe a state?, and were not verif?iable?. Their? funct?ion is to perfo?rm a parti?cular? speec?h act. 43. locut?ionar?y act: A locut?ionar?y act is the act of utter?ing words?, phras?es, claus?es. It is the act of conve?ying liter?al meani?ng by means? of synta?x, lexic?on and phono?logy.
44. illoc?ution?ary act: An illoc?ution?ary act is the act of expre?ssing? the speak?er's inten?tion; it is the act perfo?rmed in sayin?g somet?hing.
45. perlo?cutio?nary act: A perlo?cutio?nary act is the act per-forme?d by or resul?ting from sayin?g somet?hing; it is the conse?quenc?e of, or the chang?e broug?ht about? by the utter?ance; it is the act perfo?rmed by sayin?g somet?hing.
46. Coope?rativ?e Princ?iple: It is princ?iple advan?ced by Paul Grice?. It is a princ?iple that guide?s our conve?rsati?onal behav?iours?. The conte?nt is: Make your conve?rsati?onal contr?ibuti?on such as is requi?red at the stage? at which? it occur?s by the accep?ted purpo?se or the talk excha?nge in which? you are engag?ed.
49. How does a sente?nce meani?ng diffe?r from an utter?ance meani?ng?
A sente?nce meani?ng is of-ten consi?dered? as the intri?nsic prope?rty of the sente?nce itsel?f in terms? of a predi?catio?n. It is abstr?act and indep?enden?t of conte?xt. The meani?ng of an utter?ance is concr?ete, and conte?xt-depen?dent. The utter?ance meani?ng is based? on sente?nce meani?ng; it is reali?zatio?n of the abstr?act meani?ng of a sente?nce in a real situa?tion of commu?nicat?ion, or simpl?y in a conte?xt. For examp?le, “There? is?a?dog?at?the?door”. The speak?er could? utter? it as a matte?r- of- fact state?ment, telli?ng the heare?r that the dog is at the door. The speak?er could? use it as a warni?ng, askin?g the heare?r not to appro?ach the door. There? are other? possi?bilit?ies, too. So, the under?stand?ing of the utter?ance meani?ng?of?“There? is a?dog?at?the?door”?depen?ds on the conte?xt in which? it is utter?ed and the purpo?se for which? the speak?er utter?s it.
How are Lawre?nce horn and Steph?en Levin?son simil?ar and diffe?rent in their? refor?mulat?ion of Grice?’s Coope?rativ?e princ?iple?
Simil?arity?: both of Horn and Levin?son base their? Q-princ?iple on the first? sub maxim? of Quant?
ity Maxim?.
Diffe?rence?: Horn's R-princ?iple is based? on the secon?d sub maxim? of Quant?ity Maxim?, relat?
ion maxim? and part of Manne?r Maxim?, while? Levin?son' I-princ?iple is based? on the secon?d maxim?
of Quant?ity Maxim? and his Princ?iple based? on Manne?r Maxim?
从会话原则?分析小品不?差钱
对数量准则?的违反
在这组对话?中,赵的第二句?除了回答毕? “在搜狐网上?也有您的名?字?”这个问题外?,还提出了一?项超出需要?的信息,即 “我还有一个?重要秘密没?跟你透露-----其实我姥爷?也姓毕” 这句话违反?了会话合作?原则中的数?量准则,提供了多余?的星系,从而产生了?会话含义,即小品中赵?想和毕拉近?关系,能够得到去?星光大道表?演的机会,展现出一位?淳朴又不失?聪慧的老人?形象,自然让观众?忍俊不禁.
对方式准则?的违反
在对话中,赵故意用了?一种隐晦模?糊的方式来?表达社长的?意思,即 “今个儿吃完?了,明个儿来结?账”. 而小沈阳饰?演的服务员?却一语道出?了赵这句隐?晦的话语的?含义,即打白条. 赵饰演的角?色在这里故?意违反了方?式准则的第?一题,即 避免话语含?混不清,而这种有意?识的违反该?准则,实际上是为?了顾及面子?,顾及服务员?的态度及情?绪.
2016-2017年语用学定义和大题目
37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent.
Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.
41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ; 42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?
A sentence meaning is of-ten considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement,
telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
How are Lawrence horn and Stephen Levinson similar and different in their reformulation of Grice’s Cooperative principle?
Similarity: both of Horn and Levinson base their Q-principle on the first sub maxim of Quantity Maxim.
Difference: Horn's R-principle is based on the second sub maxim of Quantity Maxim, relation maxim and part of Manner Maxim, while Levinson' I-principle is based on the second maxim of Quantity Maxim and his Principle based on Manner Maxim
从会话原则分析小品不差钱
对数量准则的违反
在这组对话中,赵的第二句除了回答毕 “在搜狐网上也有您的名字?”这个问题外,还提出了一项超出需要的信息,即 “我还有一个重要秘密没跟你透露-----其实我姥爷也姓毕” 这句话违反了会话合作原则中的数量准则,提供了多余的星系,从而产生了会话含义,即小品中赵想和毕拉近关系,能够得到去星光大道表演的机会,展现出一位淳朴又不失聪慧的老人形象,自然让观众忍俊不禁.
对方式准则的违反
在对话中,赵故意用了一种隐晦模糊的方式来表达社长的意思,即 “今个儿吃完了,明个儿来结账”. 而小沈阳饰演的服务员却一语道出了赵这句隐晦的话语的含义,即打白条. 赵饰演的角色在这里故意违反了方式准则的第一题,即 避免话语含混不清,而这种有意识的违反该准则,实际上是为了顾及面子,顾及服务员的态度及情绪.
语用学
1. The three definitions have something in common:
They are all about some utterance between the speakers and the listeners in a certain situation
But they also have differences:
The first definition emphasizes on both the speaker and the listener’s utterances are influenced by the outer factors, such as the social environment. The second definition pays more attention to the situation that speaker and the listener carry out the communication. The third definition lays stress on the implied meaning of the utterance. The last definition underlines the hearer’s knowledge of the language and his world view.
Quize
1. The signs function in the different way. The expressions are pragmatically different. The signs in US, it means that slower traffic cars take the right way of the road. But different countries have different ways of expression. The sign in Canada is keep right except to pass. It can have ambiguity meanings for the use of word” except” and “pass ”
1. any cars that don’t want to pass the other cars, please keep right.
In this case, one can understand it either as the cars in the right side of the road are in slow speed, or as the cars can also maintain a high speed as long as they don ’t pass the car before them
2. these occurrence that me some trouble
the first one “No parking violators will be towed away ” could mean that
parking is prohibited here, the violators will be towed away. It also could mean that there will be no person that violates the parking rules towed away
3. “I just met the old Irishman and his son, coming out the toilet”
There are also several meanings
a. I met the old Irishman and his son, and they come out the toilet
b. I met the old Irishman and his son who is also old, they two come out the toilet
c. I met the old Irishman and his son, and then I come out of the toilet with them
